135 In deze vijfde, d.i. op één na mijne laatste lezing, bespreek ik het Calvinisme en de Kunst.

1 In this fifth lecture, which is the last but one, I speak of Calvinism and Art.

189In this fifth lecture, which is the last but one, I speak of Calvinism and Art.

Nesta quinta Palestra, que é a penúltima, falarei sobre o Calvinismo e a Arte.88

В этой пятой, предпоследней лекции я буду говорить о кальвинизме и искусстве¹.

Niet de heerschende mode noopt mij daartoe. Kniebuiging voor een dweepzieke kunstvereering, die thans ingang vindt, zou niet strooken met den hoogen levensernst, die het Calvinisme steeds kenmerkte, en dien het met beter dan penseel en beitel, dien het op het slagveld met zijn zwaard, op het schavot met het kostelijkst bloed bezegeld heeft. Bovendien die thans veldwinnende kunstmin mag u niet verblinden, maar moet met nuchteren zin en critisch oog geschat worden. Ge hebt hier te doen met het alleszins verklaarbaar verschijnsel, dat hetgeen tot dusver als het privilege van enkele bevoorrechte kringen gold, uitvloeit in den breeden burgerkring, en reeds zijn neiging verraadt om tot de laagste volkskringen af te dalen. Een democratiseeren zoo ge wilt van wat eertijds nooit anders optrad dan met aristocratische allures. En of nu de echte toonkunstenaar al klaagt, dat het pianospelen der groote massa op getjingtjangel, en het penseel-geknutsel op niets dan kladschilderijen uitloopt, het rijk gevoel van ook zelf aan kunst te doen, is derwijs overweldigend, dat men zich liever den spotlach van den echten kunstenaar, dan het gemis van kunstopleiding in de opvoeding getroost. Aan kunst meê te doen, geldt thans al kenmerk eener hoogere beschaving. Niet minder spreekt hier de zucht om met oor en oog voor het gevoel te genieten, vooral door muziek en tooneel, en al mag niet 136 verheeld, dat dit zingenot in breeden kring op min edele, soms zelfs op zondige wijze wordt gezocht, ontkend mag evenmin, dat veler kunstzin hierbij edeler genieting zoekt, en van lager zingenot aftrekt. Vooral in onze groote wereldsteden is de impressario der onderneming thans in staat zooveel rijks te leveren, en de gemakkelijker communicatie van volk met volk leent aan de virtuosen onder onze zangers en speler zulk een internationaal karakter, dat de beste uitvoeringen thans, voor bijna geen geld, onder het bereik van tienmaal breeder kring gebracht zijn. Iets waaraan, om billijk te zijn, nog moet worden toegevoegd, dat het door materialisme en rationalisme met atrophie bedreigde menschelijk hart, tegen deze verdorring in kunstmin en kunstzin tegengif zoekt. De geldheerschappij en de heerschappij van het dorre denken dreven het gevoelsleven naar het vriespunt, en het is hiertegen dat de mystiek van het hart, nu het eenmaal de Religie niet grijpen kon, in kunstbezwijmeling reageert. Al vergeet ik dus niet, dat het echte kunstgenie veeleer de hoogte der afzondering, dan de vlakte van den breeden kring zoekt, en onze aan echt kunstgenot zoo arme eeuw zich daarom meer koestert aan den kunstgloed van het verleden, dan dat ze zelve ons door nieuwe schepping verrassen zou; ja al stem ik toe, dat de kunstvereering van het profanum vulgus door wansmaak veel kunstbederf kweekte, toch staat ook dat onoordeelkundig dwepen met kunst en kunstproduct hoog in mijn schatting boven het schraapzuchtig geld maken, het dorre waanwijs zijn, en het hunkeren naar Bacchus en Venus. In deze koude, godsdienstlooze, practische eeuw heeft deze kunstvereering door haar warmte hooger neigingen in ons bij het leven gehouden, die anders licht afgestorven waren, gelijk ze afstierven in het midden der vorige eeuw. Ge merkt dus wel, dat ik de in gang zijnde kunstbeweging niet onderschat, maar tegelijk dat ze voor mij van verre niet haalt bij de religieuze beweging der 16e eeuw, en dat ik er daarom niet aan denk het calvinisme om de gunst dier artistieke mode te laten bedelen. Neen, als ik het pleit ga voeren voor de beteekenis van het Calvinisme op kunstgebied, dan denk ik van verre niet aan deze vulgariseering van kunstzin en kunstliefde, maar houd ik het oog gericht op het Schoon in 137 zijn eeuwige beteekenis, op de kunst als een der rijkste gaven van God aan ons menschelijk geslacht.

It is not the prevailing tendency of the day that induces me to do this. Genuflection before an almost fanatical worship of art, such as our time fosters, should little harmonize with the high seriousness of life, for which Calvinism has pleaded, and which it has sealed, not with the pencil or chisel in the studio, but with its best blood at the stake and in the field of battle. Moreover the love of art which is so broadly on the increase in our times, should not blind our eves, but ought to be soberly and critically examined. It presents the fact, which is in every way explainable, that artistic refinement, thus far restricted to a few favored circles, now tends to gain ground among broader middle classes, occasionally even betraying its inclination to descend to the widest strata of lower society. It is the democratizing, if you like, of a life-utterance which hitherto recommended itself by its aristocratic allurements. And though the really inspired artist may complain that, with the majority, piano-playing is mere strumming, and painting little more than daubing, 2 yet, the exuberant feeling of having a share in the privileges of art is so overwhelming, that the scorn of the artist is preferred to the abandonment of art-training in education. To have laid a production of your own, however poor, upon the altar of art becomes more and more the characteristic of an acconrplished civilization. Finally, in all this the desire of enjoyment through ear and eye expresses itself, especially by means of music and of the stage. And if it cannot be denied that many court these sensual pleasures in wa \ s that are less noble and too often sinful, it is equally certain, that in many instances this love of art leads men to seek enjoyment in nobler directions and lessens the appetite for lower sensuality. Especially in our great cities, stage-managers are able to provide such first-rate entertainments, and the easy means of communication between the nations imparts such an international character to our best singers and players, that the finest artistic enjoyments are now brought for almost no price within the reach of an ever-widening class. Besides, it is but fair to concede that, threatened with atrophy by materialism and rationalism, the human heart naturally seeks an antidote against this withering process, in its artistic instinct. Unchecked, the dominating influences of money and of barren intellectualism would reduce the life of the emotions to freezing-point. And, unable to grasp the holier benefits of religion, the mysticism of the heart reacts in an artintoxication. Hence, though I do not forget that the real genius of art seeks the heights of isolation rather than the plains below, and that our age, so poor in the production of real creative art, is deemed to warm itself at the splendid glow of the past; yea, though I admit, that the homage of art by the profanum vulgus must necessarily lead to art-corruption, nevertheless, in my estimation, even the most injudicious aesthetical fanaticism stands far higher than the common race for wealth, or barren intellectualism, or an unholy prostration before the shrines of Bacchus and 3 Verms. In this cold, irreligious and practical age the warmth of this devotion to art has kept alive many higher aspirations of our soul, which otherwise might readily have died, as they did in the middle of the last century. Thus you see, I do not underestimate the present aesthetical movement. But what 'in the light of History should be discountenanced, is the mad endeavor to place it higher than, or even to make it of equal value with the religious movement of the 16 th century, yet this is what I should be doing if I begged for Calvinism the favor of this new artistic movement. And therefore, when I plead the significance of Calvinism in the domain of art, I am not in the least induced to do so by this vulgarization of art, but mther keep my eyes fixed upon the Beautiful in its eternal significance, and upon art as one of the richest gifts of God to mankind.

It is not the prevailing tendency of the day that induces me to do this. Genuflection before an almost fanatical worship of art, such as our time fosters, should little harmonize with the high seriousness of life, for which Calvinism has pleaded, and which it has sealed, not with the pencil or chisel in the studio, but with its best blood at the stake and in the field of battle. Moreover the love of art which is so broadly on the increase in our times should not blind our eyes, but ought to be soberly and critically examined. It presents the fact, which is in every way explainable, that artistic refinement, thus far restricted to a few favored circles, now tends to gain ground among broader middle classes, occasionally even betraying its inclination to descend to the widest strata of lower society. It is the democratizing, if you like, of a life-utterance which hitherto recommended itself by its aristocratic allurements. And 190 though the really inspired artist may complain that, with the majority, piano-playing is mere strumming, and painting little more than daubing, yet, the exuberant feeling of having a share in the privileges of art is so overwhelming, that the scorn of the artist is preferred to the abandonment of art-training in education. To have laid a production of your own, however poor, upon the altar of art becomes more and more the characteristic of an accomplished civilization. Finally, in all this the desire of enjoyment through ear and eye expresses itself, especially by means of music and of the stage. And if it cannot be denied that many court these sensual pleasures in ways that are less noble and too often sinful, it is equally certain that in many instances this love of art leads men to seek enjoyment in nobler directions and lessens the appetite for lower sensuality Especially in our great cities, stage-managers are able to provide such first rate entertainments, and the easy means of communication between the nations imparts such an international character to our best singers and players, that the finest artistic enjoyments are now brought for almost no price within the reach of an ever-widening class. Besides, it is but fair to concede that, threatened with atrophy by materialism and rationalism, the human heart naturally seeks an antidote against this withering process, in its artistic instinct Unchecked, the dominating influences of money and of barren intellectualism would reduce the life of the emotions to freezing-point. And, unable to grasp the holier benefits of religion, the mysticism of the heart reacts in an art intoxication. Hence, though I 191 do not forget that the real genius of art seeks the heights of isolation rather than the plains below, and that our age, so poor in the production of real creative art, is deemed to warm itself at the splendid glow of the past; yea, though I admit that the homage of art by the profanum vulgus must necessarily lead to art-corruption, nevertheless, in my estimation, even the most injudicious aesthetical fanaticism stands far higher than the common race for wealth, or an unholy prostration before the shrines of Bacchus and Venus. In this cold, irreligious and practical age the warmth of this devotion to art has kept alive many higher aspirations of our soul, which otherwise might readily have died, as they did in the middle of the last century. Thus you see, I do not under-estimate the present aesthetical movement. But what in the light of History should be discountenanced is the mad endeavor to place it higher than, or even to make it of equal value with the religious movement of the 16th century; yet this is what I should be doing if I begged for Calvinism the favor of this new artistic movement. And therefore, when I plead the significance of Calvinism in the domain of art, I am not in the least induced to do so by this vulgarization of art, but rather keep my eyes fixed upon the Beautiful and the Sublime in its eternal significance, and upon art as one of the richest gifts of God to mankind.

Não é a tendência hoje prevalecente que me induz a fazer isto. Genuflexão ante uma adoração quase fanática da arte, tal como nosso tempo promove, deveria se harmonizar pouco com a elevada seriedade da vida que o Calvinismo tem pleiteado e tem selado, não com lápis ou pincel no estúdio, mas com seu melhor sangue na estaca e no campo de batalha. Além disso, o amor pela arte, que está tão amplamente em alta em nossos dias, não deveria vendar nossos olhos, mas deve ser examinado sóbria e criticamente. Isto indica o fato, que é facilmente explicável, de que o refinamento artístico até aqui restrito a uns poucos círculos favorecidos, agora tende a ganhar terreno entre a classe média mais ampla, ocasionalmente exibindo sua inclinação até mesmo para a camada mais baixa e mais larga da sociedade. É a democratização, se vocês gostam de uma expressão da vida que até agora recomendava-se por seus encantos aristocráticos.

Embora o artista realmente inspirado possa lamentar que, para a maioria, tocar piano é simplesmente dedilhar, e pintar pouco mais do que borrar, todavia, o sentimento exuberante de ter uma participação nos privilégios da arte é tão irresistível, que isto é preferível ao abandono da educação artística na escola. Ter colocado uma produção própria, embora pobre, sobre o altar da arte torna-se mais e mais a característica de uma civilização desenvolvida. Finalmente, em tudo isso expressa-se o desejo pelo prazer através do ouvir e do ver, especialmente por meio da música e do teatro.

E se não pode ser negado que muitos cortejam estes prazeres sensoriais por meios que são menos nobres e muitas vezes pecaminosos, é igualmente certo que, em muitas ocasiões, este amor pela arte leva os homens a procurarem prazer em direções mais nobres e a depreciarem o apetite pela mais baixa sensorialidade.

Especialmente em nossas grandes cidades, os diretores de teatro são capazes de prover excelentes entretenimentos, e os meios de comunicação entre as nações conferem um caráter internacional a nossos melhores cantores e atores, de modo que os prazeres artísticos mais refinados são agora trazidos a um preço acessível dentro do alcance de uma classe cada vez maior. Além disso, é simplesmente promissor reconhecer que, ameaçado de atrofia pelo materialismo e pelo racionalismo, o coração humano naturalmente procura um antídoto contra este processo murchante em seu instinto artístico. Incontroladas, as influências dominantes do dinheiro e do intelectualismo estéril reduziriam a vida das emoções ao ponto de congelamento. E, incapaz de entender os benefícios mais santos da religião, o misticismo do coração reage numa intoxicação pela arte. Por isso, embora eu não esqueça que o verdadeiro gênio da arte procure pelos cumes do isolamento em vez das planícies baixas, e que nossa época, tão pobre na produção da verdadeira arte criativa, é considerada aquecer-se no esplêndido fulgor do passado; além disso, embora admita que a reverência da arte ao profanum vulgus necessariamente deve levar à corrupção da arte, todavia, em minha opinião, até mesmo o fanatismo estético mais insensato permanece muito mais alto do que raça comum pela riqueza, ou por uma prostração ímpia diante do santuário de Baco ou Vênus.

Nesta época fria, irreligiosa e prática o ardor desta devoção à arte tem mantido viva muitas das mais altas aspirações de nossa alma, as quais de outro modo facilmente poderiam morrer, como ocorreu na metade do século passado. Assim, vocês vêem que eu não menosprezo o movimento estético atual. Mas à luz da História o que deveria ser desaprovado é o esforço imprudente para colocá-lo mais alto do que, ou até mesmo fazê-lo de igual valor ao movimento religioso do século 16; todavia isto é o que eu estaria fazendo se mendigasse para o Calvinismo o favor deste novo movimento artístico. E portanto, quando advogo a importância do Calvinismo no campo da arte, de modo algum sou induzido a fazê-lo por esta vulgarização da arte, mas pelo contrário, mantenho meus olhos fixos sobre o Belo e o Sublime em seu significado eterno, e sobre a arte como um dos mais ricos dons de Deus para a humanidade.

И не преобладающая тенденция сегодняшнего дня побуждает меня сделать это. Почти фанатическое почитание искусства, свойственное нашему времени, имеет мало общего с высокой серьезностью жизни, которую исповедует кальвинизм, запечатлев ее не карандашом или резцом, а кровью своих лучших людей на эшафоте и на поле брани. Любовь к искусству, которая теперь так широко распространена, не должна слепить нам глаза; ее нужно трезво и критически исследовать. Это факт, и вполне объяснимый факт, что утонченность вкуса, до сей поры присущая лишь немногим привилегированным кругам, ныне стремится завоевать средний класс, иногда выказывая склонность спуститься в широкие низшие слои общества. Если вам угодно, считайте, что жизнь, отличавшаяся прежде аристократической прелестью, теперь демократизируется. Поистине одаренный художник может сетовать на то, что для большинства игра на рояле — просто бренчание, а картина — немногим лучше окрашенной доски; и все же ощущение, что ты приобщен к привилегиям искусства, так захватывает, что насмешка над художником предпочтительнее, чем отказ от художественного воспитания в системе образования. Для современной цивилизации становится все более характерным приносить свое творчество на алтарь искусства, каким бы ограниченным оно ни было. Наконец, люди хотят просто получать удовольствие, особенно — от музыки и театра. Нельзя отрицать, что многие получают эти удовольствия не очень благородными, а порой — греховными способами, но очевидно и то, что во многих случаях любовь к искусству побуждает искать более благородные наслаждения, уменьшая потребность в чувственности более низкого порядка. Театральные режиссеры, особенно в крупных городах, способны обеспечить первоклассные увеселения, а доступные средства коммуникации между нациями придают столь широкую международную известность нашим лучшим певцам и музыкантам, что утонченные развлечения становятся все менее дорогостоящими для все более широкой публики. К тому же надо честно признать, что человеческое сердце просто задыхается в атмосфере материализма и рационализма, и, вполне естественно, ищет этому противоядие в художественном инстинкте. Бесконтрольное и безграничное влияние денег и сухого умствования совсем заморозило эмоциональную жизнь. Не осознавая святых благ религии, мистицизм сердца реагирует упоением искусства. Нет, я не забываю о том, что настоящий творец ищет скорее горнего уединения, чем низин и равнин, и что наш век, столь бедный настоящим творчеством, пытается согреться у пламени прошлого. Мало того, я допускаю, что искусствопоклонство обмирщенной толпы с необходимостью ведет к разрушению искусства. И все же, на мой взгляд, даже самый неразборчивый эстетический фанатизм много выше, чем всеобщая погоня за богатством или почитание Бахуса и Венеры. В нашем холодном, безрелигиозном, практическом веке теплая приверженность искусству сохранила многие устремления нашей души, которые иначе умерли бы, как и было в середине прошлого столетия. Словом, как вы сами видите, я не принижаю нынешнего эстетического движения. Но безумную попытку поставить его выше или даже уравнять в ценности с религиозным движением XVI столетия следует отвергнуть в свете истории, что бы я и стал делать, если бы испрашивал у этого нового художественного движения благосклонности по отношению к кальвинизму. Защищая значимость кальвинизма в сфере искусств, я ни в малейшей мере не намерен вульгаризировать искусство, но, неотрывно глядя на прекрасное и высокое в их вечном значении, считаю его одним из наиболее щедрых даров Божиих человеческому роду.

Daarbij stuit ik echter, ieder kenner der historie voelt het, op een maar al te vast geworteld vooroordeel. Calvijn, zoo luidt de uitspraak, was persoonlijk van kunstzin verstoken, en het Calvinisme dat in Nederland den Beeldenstorm aandorst, is voor kunstwaardeering, laat staan voor kunstproductie, niet vatbaar. Daarom, eer ik verder ga, over dit blind vooroordeel een kort woord. Ongetwijfeld was Luther, ook al sla ik zijn “Wer nicht liebt Weib, Wein und Gesang,” niet te hoog aan, artistieker van aanleg dan Calvijn; maar wat bewijst dit? Omdat Socrates zijn bobbeligen neus, wijl die zoo gemakkelijk den adem doorliet, als schoon roemde, en feitelijk allen zin voor het schoone miste, zult ge daarom aan het Hellenisme zijn lauweren op kunstgebied betwisten? Verraden de geschriften van Johannes, van Petrus, van Paulus, van de drie pilaren der Christelijke kerk, ook maar met een enkel woord hoogschatting van het artistieke leven? Ja, het zij met eerbied uitgesproken, is ook maar uit één enkel verhaal in de Evangeliën te bewijzen, dat Christus zelf voor kunst gepleit en om kunst geroepen heeft? En als ge op deze vragen, slag op slag, ontkennend moet antwoorden, geeft u dit daarom het recht om te loochenen, dat het Christendom voor het kunstleven van zeldzaam hooge beteekenis is geweest? En zoo niet, wat hebt ge dan van de zijde der kunst het Calvinisme van Vandalisme te beschuldigen, omdat Calvijn persoonlijk voor kunst weinig gevoeld en over kunst weinig gehandeld heeft? En komt ge op den Beeldenstorm der Geuzen, moogt ge dan vergeten, hoe in de achtste eeuw te midden der Grieksche wereld de manlijke ernst van een Leo Isaurus nog heftiger iconoclasme in het leven riep, en volgt dan daaruit dat het Byzantinisme zonder beteekenis voor de kunst voorbijging? Of wilt ge nog een ander tegenbewijs? Welnu, veel scherper nog dan óf Leo Isaurus in de achtste, óf Nederlandsche Geuzen in de zestiende eeuw, is Mahomed in zijn Khorân tegen alle beeld en beeldsgelijke opgetreden, en zult ge dan daarom zeggen dat de Alhambra te Grenada en de Alcazer te Sevilla geen wonderschoone voortbrengselen van bouwkunst zijn? 138

Here, however, every student of history knows that I founder upon a deeply-rooted prejudice. Calvin, it is said, was personally devoid of the artistic instinct, and Calvinism which in the Netherlands proved guilty of Icouoclasm, cannot but be incapable either of artistic development or of real, noteworthy" art-production. A brief word therefore about this strong prejudice is here in order. Without putting too high an estimate upon his: "Wer nicht liebt Weib, Wein and Gesang," it is beyond dispute that Luther was more artisticalby disposed than Calvin ; but what does this prove? Will you deny Hellenism its artistic laurels because, devoid of all sense of the beautiful, Socrates boasted of the beauty of his gaint nose because it allowed his breath to pass more freely ? Do the writings of John, Peter and Paul, the three pillars of the Christian Church, in a single word betray any special appreciation of artistic life ? Tea, be it asked reverently, is there any instance, in the Gospels, of Christ ever pleading for art or ever seeking its enjoyment ? And when these questions one by one, must be answered in 4 the negative, have you therefore the right to deny the fact that Christianity as such has been of an almost invaluable significance to the development of art? And if not, why then would you accuse Calvinism of Vandalism on the mere ground that Calvin personally had little feeling for art and that in his writings he had so little to say about it? And when you speak of the iconoclasm of the Beggars, should you forget that in the S th century in the midst of the artistic and beautiful Grecian world the manly spirit of Leo Isaurus instigated a still more violent iconoclasm? and should the honour be denied to Byzantianism of having produced the finest monuments? Do } t ou ask for still further proof to the contrary? Well, more sharply even than Leo Isaurus in the 8 th century or Netherland's Beggars in the 16 th century, did Mahomed in his Khoran militate against images of all kinds, but will this justify the charge that the Alhambra in Grenada and the Alcazar at Seville are no wonderfully beautiful products of architectural art? Ah, there is no progress in such dull reasoning as this.

Here, however, every student of history knows that I founder upon a deeply-rooted prejudice. Calvin, it is said, was personally devoid of the artistic instinct, and Calvinism, which in the Netherlands proved guilty of 192 Iconoclasm, cannot but be incapable either of artistic development or of real, noteworthy art-production. A brief word therefore about this strong prejudice is here in order. Without putting too high an estimate upon his: “Wer nicht liebt Weib, Wein und Gesang”, it is beyond dispute that Luther was more artistically disposed than Calvin; but what does it prove? Will you deny Hellenism its artistic laurels because, devoid of all sense of the beautiful, Socrates boasted of the beauty of his giant nose because it allowed his breath to pass more freely? Do the writings of John, Peter and Paul, the three pillars of the Christian Church, in a single word betray any special appreciation of artistic life? Yea, be it asked reverently, is there any instance in the Gospels of Christ ever pleading for art as such, or seeking its enjoyment? And when these questions, one by one, must be answered in the negative, have you therefore the right to deny the fact that Christianity as such has been of an almost invaluable significance to the development of art? And if not, why then would you accuse Calvinism on the mere ground that Calvin personally had little feeling for art? And when you speak of the Iconoclasm of the Beggars, should you forget that in the 8th century in the midst of the artistic and beautiful Grecian world the manly spirit of Leo Isaurus instigated a still more violent Iconoclasm, and should therefore the honor be denied to Byzantium of having produced the finest monuments? Do you ask for still further proof to the contrary? Well, more sharply even than Leo Isaurus in the 8th century or the Netherland’s Beggars in the 16th 193 century, did Mahomed in his Khoran militate against images of all kinds, but will this justify the charge that the Alhambra in Grenada and the Alcazar at Seville are no wonderfully beautiful products of architectural art?

Aqui, contudo, todo estudante de História sabe que eu tropeço num preconceito profundamente enraizado. É dito que Calvino era pessoalmente destituído de instinto artístico e que o Calvinismo, o qual na Holanda veio a ser culpado de Iconoclastia, não pode senão ser incapaz quer de desenvolvimento artístico quer de verdadeira notável produção artística. Portanto, uma breve palavra acerca deste forte preconceito é oportuna aqui. Sem colocar uma avaliação muito alta sobre seu: “Wer nicht liebt Weib, Wein und Gesang”, é indiscutível que Lutero era artisticamente mais inclinado do que Calvino; mas o que isto prova?

Vocês negarão ao Helenismo seus louros artísticos por que desprovido de todo senso de beleza Sócrates gabava-se da beleza de seu nariz gigante, por que permitia sua respiração passar mais livremente? Os escritos de João, Pedro e Paulo, os três pilares da Igreja cristã, exibem em uma única palavra qualquer apreciação especial pela vida artística? Além disso, seja perguntado reverentemente, há alguma ocasião nos Evangelhos onde Cristo de algum modo suplica pela arte como tal, ou busca seu prazer? E já que estas questões, uma por uma, devem ser respondidas no negativo, vocês têm por isso o direito de negar o fato de que o Cristianismo como tal tem sido de uma importância quase inestimável ao desenvolvimento da arte? E se não, por que então vocês acusariam o Calvinismo sobre a simples base de que Calvino pessoalmente tinha pouca sensibilidade para a arte? E quando vocês falam da Iconoclastia dos Mendigos, vocês deveriam esquecer que no século oitavo, no meio do artístico e belo mundo grego, o espírito viril de Leo Isaurus instigou uma Iconoclastia ainda mais violenta, e por isso deveria ser negada a Bizâncio a honra de ter produzido os mais admiráveis monumentos? Vocês perguntam por provas adicionais do contrário? Bem, ainda mais claramente do que Leo Isaurus no século oitavo ou os Mendigos da Holanda no século 16, Maomé em seu Alcorão militou contra imagens de todos os tipos, porém isto justificará a acusação de que Alhambra em Granada e Alcáçar em Sevilha não são produtos maravilhosamente belos de arte arquitetônica?

Однако каждый, изучавший историю, знает, что здесь я столкнусь с глубоко укорененным предрассудком. Говорят, что Кальвин был лишен художественных дарований, а кальвинизм, который в Нидерландах оказался повинен в иконоборчестве, не способен ни к творческому развитию, ни даже к настоящему, заметному творчеству. Придется сказать несколько слов об этом предубеждении. Даже не слишком высоко оценивая слова Лютера «Wer nicht liebt Weib, Wein und Gesang» (Кто не любит женщин, вино и пение), мы не сомневаемся, что он был более склонен к искусству, чем Кальвин. Но что это доказывает? Будете ли вы отказывать эллинизму в артистических лаврах из-за того, что Сократ, лишенный чувства прекрасного, гордился своим огромным носом, потому что так легче дышать? Есть ли в писаниях Иоанна, Петра или Павла, трех столпов христианской Церкви, хоть какое-то почтение к искусству? Более того, благочестиво спросим, есть ли в Евангелиях место, где бы Христос защищал искусство как таковое или хотел хотя бы им насладиться? Когда на эти вопросы, один за другим, мы дадим негативный ответ, то появится ли у нас право отрицать тот неоспоримый факт, что христианство внесло почти бесценный вклад в развитие искусства? Почему же мы обвиняем кальвинизм только на том основании, что Кальвин не испытывал к искусству особых чувств? Когда вы говорите об иконоборчестве беггаров, нельзя забывать, что в VIII столетии, в центре изысканного и блистательного мира мужественный дух Льва Исавра воздвиг еще более яростное гонение на иконы; но можно ли по этой причине отнимать у Византии честь создания прекраснейших памятников искусства? Надо ли еще доказательств от противного? Мухаммад в Коране боролся с изображениями непримиримей, чем Лев Исавр в VIII в. и голландские беггары в XVI в., но Альгамбра в Гренаде и Алькасар в Севилье поражают своей красотой.

Neen, waarlijk, met zoo botte redeneering vordert men hier niet, en vergeten mag evenmin, dat wel kunstzin een algemeen menschelijk verschijnsel is, maar dat de ontwikkeling van dien kunstzin, in verband met volkstype, klimaat en woonstreek, hoogst ongelijk onder de volkeren verdeeld is. Wie gaat op IJsland kunstontwikkeling zoeken, en wie snuift ze niet, als ik mij zoo mag uitdrukken, te midden van de natuurweelde van de Levant? Is het dan wonder, dat het Zuiden meer dan het Noorden van Europa den kunstzin in het gevlij kwam? En als de historie u dan getuigt, hoe het Calvinisme vooral bij de Noordsche volken ingang vond, bewijst het dan iets tegen het Calvinisme, dat het bij volken met kouder klimaat en armer natuur niet het kunstleven van de Zuidelijke volken wist te wekken? Het is zoo, omdat het Calvinisme een Godsvereering in geest en waarheid boven de sacerdotalistische weelde verkoos, is het door Rome van gemis aan kunstwaardeering beschuldigd; en omdat het afkeurde dat de vrouw haar schaamte voor den schilder ontblootte, of in het ballet haar eere als vrouw wegwierp, is zijn zedelijke ernst in botsing gekomen met het sensualisme van wie geen offer voor de kunst te heilig keurde. Maar dit alles raakt niet de kunst zelve, maar alleen én de plaats die haar in het geheel van ons leven toekomt, én de grens die aan haar gebied is te stellen. En wilt ge daarom van hooger standpunt de beteekenis van het Calvinisme voor de kunst beoordeelen, leent dan niet het oor aan zoo oppervlakkige uitspraken, maar volgt mij dan bij het drieledig onderzoek: 1e. Waarom het Calvinisme geen eigen kunststijl mocht ontwikkelen; 2e. wat uit zijn beginsel voor het wezen der kunst voortvloeit; en 3e. wat het feitelijk voor den bloei der kunsten gedaan heeft.

We must not forget that the artistic instinct is an universal human phenomenon, but that in connection with national types, climates and countries, the development of that artistic instinct is most unequally divided among the nations. Who will look for a development of art in Iceland, and who on the other hand will not scent it, if I may so express myself, amidst the luxury of nature in the Levant ? Is it then a matter of surprise that the South of Europe was more favorable for the development of this artistic instinct than the North? And when History shows that Calvinism was most widely received by the peoples of the North, does it prove aught against Calvinism, that in nations, living in a colder climate and of poorer natural surroundings, it was not able to quicken an artistic life such as flourished among the Southern nations ? Because Calvinism preferred a worship of God in spirit and in 5 truth, to sacerdotal wealth, it. has been accused by Rome of being devoid of an appreciation of art, and because it disapproved of a woman debasing herself as an artist's model or casting away her honor in the ballet, its moral seriousness has clashed with the sensualism of those who deemed no sacrifice too sacred for the Goddess of Art. All this however concerns only the place which art has to occupy in the sphere of life, and the boundaries of its domain, but does not touch art itself. To view therefore from a higher platform the significance of Calvinism to art, follow me in the investigation of these three points: 1. why Calvinism was not allowed to develop an art-style of its own ; 2. what flows from its principle for the nature of art: and 3. what it has actually done for its advancement.

We must not forget that the artistic instinct is a universal human phenomenon, but that in connection with national types, climates and countries, the development of that artistic instinct is most unequally divided among the nations. Who will look for a development of art in Iceland, and who on the other hand will not scent it, if I may so express myself, amidst the luxury of nature in the Levant? Is it then a matter of surprise that the South of Europe was more favorable for the development of this artistic instinct than the North? And when History shows that Calvinism was most widely received by the people of the North, does it prove aught against Calvinism, that in nations living in a colder climate and of poorer natural surroundings, it was not able to quicken an artistic life such as flourished among the Southern nations ? Because Calvinism preferred a worship of God in spirit and in truth, to sacerdotal wealth, it has been accused by Rome of being devoid of an appreciation of art, and because it disapproved of a woman debasing herself as an artist’s model or casting away her honor in the ballet, its moral seriousness has clashed with the sensualism of those who deemed no sacrifice too sacred for the Goddess of Art. All this, however, concerns only the place which art has to occupy in the sphere of life, and the boundaries of its domain, but does not touch art itself. 194 To view therefore from a higher platform the significance of Calvinism to art, follow me in the investigation of these three points: 1. why Calvinism was not allowed to develop an art-style of its own; 2. what flows from its principle for the nature of art; and 3. what it has actually done for its advancement.

Não devemos nos esquecer que o instinto artístico é um fenômeno universal, mas que em relação aos tipos nacionais, climas e países, o desenvolvimento deste instinto artístico está desigualmente muito dividido entre as nações. Quem olhará para um desenvolvimento da arte na Islândia, e quem, por outro lado, não sentirá seu perfume, se posso me expressar assim, em meio ao luxo da natureza no Oriente? É então uma questão de surpresa que o Sul da Europa foi mais favorável ao desenvolvimento deste instinto artístico do que o Norte? E quando a História mostra que o Calvinismo foi mais amplamente recebido pelos povos do Norte, prova algo contra o Calvinismo que, nas nações que vivem num clima mais frio e ambiente natural mais pobre, ele não foi capaz de estimular uma vida artística tal como a desenvolvida entre as nações do Sul?

Porque o Calvinismo preferiu a adoração de Deus em espírito e verdade à riqueza sacerdotal, ele foi acusado por Roma de ser destituído de uma apreciação pela arte. E porque ele reprovou que a mulher se rebaixasse como um modelo de artista ou abandonasse sua honra no balet, sua seriedade moral entrou em conflito com o sensorialismo daqueles que julgaram não sacrificar demais o sagrado por causa da Divindade da Arte. Tudo isso, contudo, diz respeito somente ao lugar que a arte deve ocupar na esfera da vida, e os limites de seu domínio, mas não toca a arte em si mesma. Portanto, para verem a importância do Calvinismo para a arte de uma plataforma mais alta, sigam-me na investigação destes três pontos: 1) Por que o Calvinismo não permitiu desenvolver um estilo de arte próprio dele; 2) O que flui de seu princípio para a natureza da arte; e 3) O que de fato ele tem feito para seu progresso.

Мы не должны забывать, что склонность к искусству свойственна всем, но в зависимости от национального характера, климата и страны, развивается она самым неравномерным образом. Кто будет искать искусство в Исландии, но не ощутит его благоухания среди прекрасной природы Леванта? Что же удивляться, если юг Европы благоприятнее для этой склонности, чем Север? История показывает, что кальвинизм лучше восприняли народы Севера; виновен ли он в том, что в более холодном климате, в более бедном окружении он не пробудил ту художественную жизнь, которая процветала у южных народов? Богатству священничества кальвинизм предпочитал поклонение Богу в духе и истине, а Рим обвинял его в полном отсутствии уважения к искусству. Кальвинистам не нравилось, что женщины унижают себя, позируя художникам, или поступаются честью, занимаясь балетом. А их нравственную серьезность осуждали те, кто не считал слишком дорогой никакую жертву искусству. Все это касается только того места, какое должно занимать искусство в жизни и каковы пределы его влияния, но не касается самого искусства. И потому, чтобы взглянуть с более высоких позиций на значение кальвинизма для искусства, прошу вас рассмотреть со мной следующие пункты: 1) Почему кальвинизму не удалось развить собственный стиль в искусстве? 2) Что вытекает из его взглядов на природу искусства? 3) Что он сделал для развития искусства?

Alles zou wel zijn, indien maar het Calvinisme een eigen kunststijl ontwikkeld had. Zooals men roemt in het Parthenon van Athene, in het Pantheon van Rome, in de Aja Sofia van Byzantium, in den Dom van Keulen of in de Sint-Pieterskerk van het Vaticaan, zóó moest ook het Calvinisme een indrukwekkende 139structuur hebben aan te wijzen, waarin het de volheid zijner levensgedachte artistiek belichaamd had. Dat het dit niet deed, geldt als voldingend bewijs voor zijn kunstarmoede. Het zou, zoo waant men, zulk een kunstweelde wel hebben willen scheppen, maar het kon niet. Zijn dorre stugheid stond aan zoo edele ontwikkeling in den weg. En als dan de Humanist in de klassieke kunst van oud Hellas, de Grieksche kerk in den Byzantijnschen en Rome in haar Gotischen stijl roemt, dan acht men dat het Calvinisme daartegenover verlegen wijl met ledige hand staat, en hiermeê zichzelf aanklaagt van het volle menschelijke leven te hebben verminkt. Daartegenover echter plaats ik nu de stelling, dat het Calvinisme, juist krachtens zijn hooger beginsel, zulk een eigen kunststijl niet mochtontwikkelen. De bouwkunst moest ik hierbij wel op den voorgrond stellen, omdat én in de klassieke én in de dusgenaamd Christelijke kunst eerst door de bouwkunst het absolute en alomvattend kunstwerk te voorschijn trad, en alle overige kunsten zich om tempel en kerk, en zoo ook om moskee en pagode schikten. Nauwelijks één kunststijl is te noemen, die niet van het middelpunt der Godsvereering is uitgegaan en niet in het prachtgebouw voor die vereering zijn voltooiing zocht. Een op zichzelf edele aandrift dreef daarbij. De kunst ontleende aan de Religie haar rijkste motieven. Ze vonden in den religieusen hartstocht de goudmijn, die geldelijk haar stoutste ontwerpen mogelijk maakte. Alleen in het heilige vond ze niet enkel den engen kring van kunstminnaars, maar heel het volk in zijn breede rangen aan haar voeten. De aanbidding strengelde den eenheidsband om alle verspreide kunsten. Ook gaf ze door dien band van het eeuwige aan de kunsten innerlijke eenheid en ideale wijding. En zoo verklaart het zich dat, wat ook paleis en tooneel voor den bloei der kunsten doen mochten, het stempel van een eigen karakter, in de saamvatting der kunsteenheid, alleen door het heiligdom op de kunst werd gedrukt. Kunststijl en stijl van aanbidding vielen samen. Ware nu deze door kunst gedragen aanbidding en door aanbidding gekoesterde kunst metterdaad het ware en hoogste, dan, het moet erkend, zou het Calvinisme het afleggen. Blijkt daarentegen dat dit huwelijk van religie en kunst 140 een lagere trap van religieuse en in het gemeen van menschelijke ontwikkeling vertegenwoordigt, dan, het is duidelijk, wordt het niet hebben van een eigen kunststijl voor het Calvinisme veeleer een aanbeveling. Dat dit nu metterdaad zoo is, staat voor mij vast, en van dit mijn gevoelen geef ik u rekenschap.

All would be well, if only Calvinism had developed an art-style of its own. Just as the Parthenon is boasted of at Athens, the Pantheon at Rome, the Saint Sophia at Byzantium, the Cathedral at Cologne, or the Saint Peter's at the Vatican, so also ought Calvinism to be able to exhibit an impressive structure, embodying all the fulness of its ideal. And that it did not do this is considered sufficient proof of its artistic poverty. Of course Calvinism is understood as having tried to ascend to the same artistic luxury, but is censured as having proved unable to accomplish it; its barren inflexibilit} r being the obstacle that prevented evenhigher aesthetical development. And when the humanist boasts of the classic art of old Hellas, the Greek Church of the Byzantian, and Rome of its Gothic style, then Calvinism is looked upon as standing confused in their presence, perplexed by the painful charge of having lessened the fulness of human life. Now in opposition to this thoroughly unfair accusation, I maintain, that for the very reason of its higher principle Calvinism was not permitted to develop 6 such an art-style of its own. I was bound in this connection to put architecture to the front, because both in classic and in so-called Christian art the absolute and all-embracing production of art was exhibited in architecture, all the other departments of art finally adapting themselves to the temple, church, mosque or pagoda. Scarcely a single artstyle can be mentioned which did not arise from the centre of divine worship and which did not seek the realization of its ideals in the sumptuous structure for that worship. This was the thriving of an impulse which in itself was noble. Art derived her richest motives from Religion. The religious passion was the gold-mine, which financially rendered her boldest conceptions possible. For the realisation of her conceptions in this holy domain she found not only the narrow circle of artlovers, but also the whole nation at her feet. Divine worship furnished the tie that united the separated arts. And what tells more still, by this connexion with the Eternal, art received its inner unity and its ideal consecration. And this explains the fact that, whatever the palace and the stage may have done for the development of art, it was always the sanctuary by which it was impressed with the stamp of a special character and to which it was indebted for a creative style. Art-style and the style of worship coincided. Now of course, if this wedding of art-inspired worship, with worship-inspired art be no intermediate stage, but the real and the highest end to be obtained, then it must frankly be confessed that Calvinism cannot but plead guilty. If, however, on the other hand, it can be shown that this alliance of religion and art represents a lower stage of religious, and in general of human development, then it is plain, that in this very want of a special artstyle, Calvinism finds an even higher recommendation. Being fully convinced in my own mind that this is the case, I proceed to account for my conviction.

All would be well, if only Calvinism had developed an architectural style of its own. Just as the Parthenon is boasted of at Athens, the Pantheon at Rome, the Saint Sophia at Byzantium, the Cathedral at Cologne, or the Saint Peter’s at the Vatican, so also ought Calvinism to be able to exhibit an impressive structure, embodying all the fulness of its ideal. And that it did not do this is considered sufficient proof of its artistic poverty. Of course Calvinism is understood as having tried to ascend to the same artistic luxury, but is censured as having proved unable to accomplish it; its barren inflexibility being the obstacle that prevented every higher aesthetical development. And when the humanist boasts of the classic art of Old Hellas, the Greek Church of the Byzantine, and Rome of its Gothic Cathedral, then Calvinism is looked upon as standing perplexed by the painful charge of having lessened the fulness of human life. Now in opposition to this thoroughly unfair accusation, I maintain that for the very reason of its higher principle Calvinism was not allowed to develop such an architectural style of its own. I was bound in this connection to put architecture to the front, because both in classic and in so-called Christian art the 195 absolute and all-embracing production of art was exhibited in architecture, all the other departments of art finally adapting themselves to the temple, church, mosque or pagoda. Scarcely a single art-style can be mentioned which did not arise from the center of divine worship and which did not seek the realization of its ideals in the sumptuous structure for that worship. This was the thriving of an impulse which in itself was noble. Art derived her richest motives from Religion. The religious passion was the gold-mine, which financially rendered her boldest conceptions possible. For the realization of her conceptions in this holy domain she found not only the narrow circle of art-lovers, but also the whole nation at her feet. Divine worship furnished the tie that united the separated arts. And what tells more still, by this connection with the Eternal, art received its inner unity and its ideal consecration. And this explains the fact that whatever the palace and the stage may have done for the development of art, it was always the sanctuary by which it was impressed with the stamp of a special character and to which it was indebted for a creative style. Art-style and the style of worship coincided. Now of course, if this wedding of art inspired worship, with worship-inspired art be no intermediate stage, but the highest end to be obtained, then it must frankly be confessed that Calvinism cannot but plead guilty. If, however, it can be shown that this alliance of religion and art represents a lower stage of religious, and in general of human development, then it is plain that in this very want of a special architectural style, Calvinism finds an even higher recommendation. Being 196 fully convinced that this is the case, I proceed to account for this conviction.

Tudo estaria bem, se o Calvinismo tão somente tivesse desenvolvido um estilo arquitetônico próprio dele. Exatamente como o Paternon é o motivo de orgulho de Atenas, o Panteon de Roma, a Santa Sofia de Bizâncio, a Catedral em Colônia, ou a Catedral de São Pedro do Vaticano, assim o Calvinismo também deveria ser capaz de exibir uma construção impressionante, incorporando toda a plenitude de seu ideal. E que não fazê-lo é considerado prova suficiente de sua pobreza artística. Certamente é entendido que o Calvinismo tentou subir ao mesmo luxo artístico, mas é censurado como tendo provando ser incapaz de alcançá-lo; sua inflexibilidade estéril foi o obstáculo que impediu todo desenvolvimento estético superior. E quando o humanista orgulha-se da arte clássica da Velha Helas89, a Igreja Grega da Bizantina, e Roma de suas Catedrais Góticas, então o Calvinismo é considerado como em posição complicada pela acusação dolorosa de ter diminuído a plenitude da vida humana. Agora, em oposição a esta acusação completamente injusta, eu sustento que em razão de seu próprio princípio superior não foi permitido ao Calvinismo desenvolver um estilo arquitetônico próprio. Por isso, fui obrigado a considerar primeiro a arquitetura, porque tanto na arte clássica como na assim chamada arte cristã, a absoluta e todo-abrangente produção artística foi exibida na arquitetura, com todos os outros departamentos da arte finalmente adaptando-se ao templo, igreja, mesquita e pagode.90

Dificilmente pode ser mencionado um único estilo artístico que não se originou do centro da adoração divina e que não procurou a realização de seus ideais nas construções suntuosas feitas para esta adoração. Este foi o florescer de um impulso que em si mesmo era nobre. A arte derivou seus mais ricos motivos da Religião. A paixão religiosa foi a mina de ouro que tornou financeiramente possível suas concepções mais audazes. Para a realização de suas concepções neste campo santo - a arte - não encontrou apenas o circulo restrito de seus amantes, mas igualmente toda a nação a seus pés. A adoração divina forneceu o laço que unia as artes separadas. E o que revela ainda mais, por esta ligação com o Eterno a arte recebeu sua unidade interior e sua consagração ideal. Isto explica o fato que qualquer coisa que o palácio e o teatro possam ter feito para o desenvolvimento da arte, sempre foi por meio do santuário que ela foi marcada com o sinal de um caráter especial e ao qual estava em dívida por um estilo criativo. O estilo da arte e o estilo da adoração coincidiam. Certamente, se este casamento da adoração inspirada pela arte, com a arte inspirada pela adoração não sendo o estágio intermediário, mas o objetivo máximo a ser obtido, então deve ser francamente confessado que o Calvinismo não declarar-se culpado. Se, contudo, pode ser mostrado que esta aliança da religião com a arte representa um estágio inferior de religião, e em geral do desenvolvimento humano, então está claro que nesta própria falta de um estilo arquitetônico especial o Calvinismo encontra uma recomendação ainda mais alta. Estando plenamente convencido de que este é o caso, prossigo para dar a razão desta convicção.

Было бы хорошо, если бы кальвинизм развил собственный архитектурный стиль. Парфеноном гордились в Афинах, Пантеоном — в Риме, Святой Софией — в Византии, Кафедральным собором — в Кельне, собором Святого Петра — в Ватикане. Точно так же и кальвинизм должен был бы создать такое поразительное строение, которое воплотило бы всю полноту его идеала. Он этого не сделал, что считают достаточным доказательством его художественной бедности. Обычно полагают, что кальвинизм пытался возвыситься до подобного художественного великолепия, но это ему не удалось, помешала нетворческая жесткость, которая не способствует эстетическому развитию. Гуманист гордится классическим искусством Древней Греции, греческая церковь — Византией, Рим — своими готическими соборами, а кальвинизм обвиняют в том, что он умалил полноту человеческой жизни. В противоположность такому совершенно несправедливому обвинению я считаю, что именно благодаря своему высшему принципу кальвинизм и не стал развивать собственный архитектурный стиль. Я вынужден говорить в основном об архитектуре, потому что и классическое, и так называемое христианское искусство полнее всего выразилось именно в ней. Все остальные его виды приспособились к храму, церкви, мечети или пагоде. Едва ли можно назвать художественный стиль, который не возник бы из поклонения божеству и не стремился бы осуществить свои идеалы в прекрасном здании, предназначенном именно для этого. Так развивалось движение, само по себе благородное. Искусство обильно черпало вдохновение в религии. Религиозное чувство было поистине золотой жилой; денег не жалели на самые смелые замыслы. Осуществляя же замыслы в священной сфере, искусство обретало не узкий круг поклонников, но всю нацию. Поклонение божеству объединяло разные искусства. Более того, через связь с вечным искусство получило внутреннее единство и высокое освящение. Что бы ни делали дворцы и театры, именно святилище накладывало на творчество особый отпечаток, и искусство было обязано ему своим стилем. Другими словами, стиль искусства и стиль служения совпадали. Если союз богослужения, вдохновленного искусством, и искусства, вдохновленного богослужением, — не какая-то промежуточная стадия, а высшая цель, к которой надлежит стремиться, то, скажем честно, кальвинизму остается только признать свою вину. Если же можно показать, что союз между религией и искусством представляет собой более низкую ступень религиозной жизни, то ясно, что отсутствие собственного архитектурного стиля оказывается сильной стороной кальвинизма. Я убежден, что это именно так, и попробую обосновать мое убеждение.

Aesthetische ontwikkeling der Godsvereering, opgevoerd tot die ideale hoogte waarvan Parthenon en Pantheon, Aja Sofia of Sint-Pieter de in steen vastgevroren getuigen zijn, is alleen denkbaar op dien lageren ontwikkelingstrap, waarop een zelfde religievorm door overheidsmacht en priestermacht aan heel het volk wordt opgelegd. In symbolische aanbidding smelt dan alle onderscheid van geestesuiting saâm, en de massale eenheid, onder magistrale en clericale leiding, biedt de mogelijkheid om zoo kolossale werken te bekostigen en in stand te houden. Bij de voortgaande ontwikkeling der volkeren daarentegen, als de verbijzondering der geesten de massale eenheid splijt, klimt ook de Religie tot dien hoogeren trap op, dat ze uit het symbolische in het klaar bewuste leven overgaat, en hiermeê 1º. de splitsing in velerlei vormen van aanbidding, 2º. de losmaking van de mondig geworden Religie van staatsvoogdij, en 3º. de bevrijding van de sacerdotale opperheerschappij, noodzakelijk maakt. Tot dien hoogeren trap nu van geestelijke ontwikkeling was Europa eerst in de zestiende eeuw langzaam naderend, en het was niet het Lutheranisme met zijn cuius regio eius religio, maar het Calvinisme, dat den overgang hiertoe, nog wel niet voltooide, maar toch in beginsel mogelijk maakte. Het heeft dan ook in alle landen waar het optrad tot het uiteengaan in velerlei gezindheden geleid, de overmacht van de Overheid op religieus terrein gebroken, en aan het sacerdotalisme in breeden kring een einde gemaakt. Doch hieruit vloeide dan ook voort, dat het den symbolischen vorm van aanbidding prijs gaf en den eisch der kunst afwees, om in prachtmonumenten zijn geest te belichamen. De tegenwerping, dat toch in Israël zulk een symbolische dienst bestond, werpt mijn stelling ten deze niet omver, maar komt haar juist bevestigen. Of zegt niet het Nieuwe Testament ons, dat deze dienst der schaduwen, in de oude Bedeeling onmisbaar, in de 141 bedeeling der vervulling “oud en verouderd was en nabij de verdwijning”? Onder Israel heerscht staatsgodsdienst, één voor heel het volk. Die godsdienst staat onder sacerdotale leiding. En eindelijk, ze is symbolisch te voorschijn tredend en deswege in den prachtigen tempel van Salomo belichaamd. Maar als deze dienst der schaduwen den raad des Heeren gediend heeft, treedt de Christus op, om de ure te profeteeren, dat men niet meer in dezen monumentalen tempel te Jeruzalem God zal aanbidden, maar dat men Hem aanbidden zal in geest en waarheid. En dienovereenkomstig vindt ge in heel de apostolische Schriftuur dan ook geen spoor of schaduw van aanbidding in kunstvorm. Aärons aanschouwelijk priesterschap op aarde trekt zich terug voor het ongeziene Hoogepriesterschap naar de ordening van Melchizedek in den hemel. Het zuiver geestelijke breekt door de nevelen van het symbolische heen.

The aesthetic development of divine worship carried to 7 those ideal heights of which the Parthenon and the Pantheon, the Saint Sophia and Saint Peter are the stoneembroidered witnesses, is only possible at that lower stage of progress in which the same form of religion is imposed upon a whole nation, both by prince and priest. In that case every difference of spiritual expression fuses into one mode of symbolical worship, and this union of the masses, under the leadership of the magistrate and the clergy, furnishes the possibility of defraying the immense expense of such colossal structures, and of ornamenting and decorating them. In the case however of a progressive development of the nations, when individual character-traits split the unity of the masses, Religion also rises to that higher plain where it graduates from the symbolical into the clearly- conscious life, and thereby necessitates both the division of worship into many forms, and the emancipation of matured religion from all sacerdotal and political guardianship. In the lGth century Europe was approaching, though slowly, this higher level of spiritual development, and it was not Lutheranism with its subjection of the whole nation to the religion of the prince, but Calvinism with its profound conception of religious liberty, which initiated the transition. In every country where Calvinism has made its appearance, it has led to a multiformity of life-tendencies, it has broken the power of the State within the domain of religion, and to a great extent has made an end of sacerdotalism. As a result of this, it abandoned the symbolical form of worship, and refused, at the demand of art, to embody its religious spirit in monuments of splendor.

The objection that such a symbolic service had a place in Israel does not weaken my argument, it rather supports it. For does not the New Testament teach us that the ministry of shadows, naturally flourishing under the old dispensation, under the dispensation of fulfilled prophecy is "old and waxeth aged and is nigh unto vanishing away?" In Israel we find a state-religion, which is one and the same for the entire 8 people. That religion is under sacerdotal leadership. And finally it makes its appearance in symbols, and is consequently embodied in the splendid temple of Solomon. But when this ministry of shadows has served the purposes of the Lord, Christ comes to prophecy the hour when God shall no longer be worshipped in the monumental temple at Jerusalem, but shall rather be worshipped in spirit and in truth. And in keeping with this prophecy you find no trace or shadow of art for worship in all the apostolic literature. Aaron's visible priesthood on earth gives place to the invisible High-priesthood after the order of Melchizedek in Heaven. The purely spiritual breaks through the nebula of the symbolical.

First then the aesthetic development of divine worship carried to those ideal heights of which the Parthenon and the Pantheon, the Saint Sophia and Saint Peter are the stone-embroidered witnesses, is only possible at that lower stage, in which the same form of religion is imposed upon a whole nation, both by prince and priest. In that case every difference of spiritual expression fuses into one mode of symbolical worship, and this union of the masses, under the leadership of the magistrate and the clergy, furnishes the possibility of defraying the immense expense of such colossal structures and of ornamenting and decorating them. In the case, however, of a progressive development of the nations, when individual character-traits split the unity of the masses, Religion also rises to that higher plain where it graduates from the symbolical into the clearly-conscious life, and thereby necessitates both the division of worship into many forms, and the emancipation of matured religion from all sacerdotal and political guardianship. In the 16th century Europe was approaching, though slowly, this higher level of Spiritual development, and it was not Lutheranism with its subjection of the whole nation to the religion of the prince, but Calvinism with its profound conception of religious liberty, which initiated the transition. In every country where Calvinism has made its appearance, it has led to a multiformity of life-tendencies, it has broken the power of the State within the domain of religion, and to a great extent has made an end of sacerdotalism. As a result of this, 197 it abandoned the symbolical form of worship, and refused, at the demand of art, to embody its religious spirit in monuments of splendor.

The objection that such a symbolic service had a place in Israel does not weaken my argument, it rather supports it. For does not the New Testament teach us that the ministry of shadows, naturally flourishing under the old dispensation, under the dispensation of fulfilled prophecy is “old and waxeth aged and is nigh unto vanishing away?” In Israel we find a state-religion, which is one and the same for the entire people. That religion is under sacerdotal leadership. And finally it makes its appearance in symbols, and is consequently embodied in the splendid temple of Solomon. But when this ministry of shadows has served the purposes of the Lord, Christ comes to prophesy the hour when God shall no longer be worshipped in the monumental temple at Jerusalem, but shall rather be worshipped in spirit and in truth. And in keeping with this prophecy you find no trace or shadow of art for worship in all the apostolic literature. Aaron’s visible priesthood on earth gives place to the invisible High-priesthood after the order of Melchizedek in Heaven. The purely spiritual breaks through the nebula of the symbolical.

Primeiramente, então, o desenvolvimento estético da adoração divina, que conduziu àqueles altos ideais dos quais o Parthenon e o Pantheon, a Santa Sofia e a São Pedro são belas testemunhas de pedra, somente é possível naquele estágio inferior no qual a mesma forma de religião é imposta sobre uma nação, tanto pelo príncipe como pelo sacerdote. Neste caso, toda diferença de expressão espiritual funde-se em um único modo de adoração simbólica, e esta união do povo sob a liderança do magistrado e do clero fornece a possibilidade de custear a imensa despesa de construções colossais como estas, de ornamentá-las e decorá-las. Entretanto, no caso de um desenvolvimento progressivo das nações, quando traços de caráter individual quebram a unidade do povo, a Religião também eleva-se àquele plano mais alto onde gradativamente muda da vida simbólica para a vida claramente consciente, e assim necessita tanto da divisão da adoração em diversas formas como da emancipação da religião amadurecida de toda tutela sacerdotal e política. No século 16 a Europa estava se aproximando, embora lentamente, deste nível superior de desenvolvimento espiritual, e não foi o Luteranismo com sua sujeição de toda a nação à religião do príncipe, mas o Calvinismo com sua profunda concepção de liberdade religiosa que iniciou a transição. Em cada país onde o Calvinismo surgiu levou a uma multiformidade de tendências de vida, quebrou o poder do Estado dentro do campo da religião e numa grande extensão pôs um fim no sacerdotalismo. Como resultado disto, abandonou a forma simbólica de adoração, e rejeitou encarnar seu espírito religioso em monumentos de esplendor, conforme a exigência da arte.

A objeção de que um serviço simbólico como este tinha lugar em Israel não enfraquece meu argumento, antes o sustenta. Pois não nos ensina o Novo Testamento que o ministério das sombras, prosperando naturalmente sob a velha dispensação, sob a dispensação da profecia cumprida é “ora aquilo que se torna antiquado e envelhecido está prestes a desaparecer”? Em Israel encontramos a religião do estado, que é uma e a mesma para todo o povo. Esta religião está sob a liderança sacerdotal. Finalmente, revela-se em símbolos, e conseqüentemente está incorporada no esplêndido templo de Salomão. Mas quando este ministério de sombras cumpriu os propósitos do Senhor, Cristo vem para profetizar a hora quando Deus não mais será adorado no monumental templo em Jerusalém, pelo contrário, será adorado em espírito e em verdade. E em conformidade com esta profecia vocês não encontram nenhum vestígio ou sombra de arte com propósito de adoração em toda literatura apostólica. O sacerdócio visível de Arão dá lugar ao Sumo-sacerdócio invisível segundo a ordem de Melquisedeque no Céu. O puramente espiritual abre caminho através da neblina do simbólico.

Во-первых, эстетическое развитие поклонения божествам, приводящее к тем высоким идеалам, которые воплотились в Парфеноне, Пантеоне, Святой Софии и соборе Святого Петра, возможно только на такой стадии, когда и правитель, и священнослужитель налагают одну форму религии на весь народ. В таком случае любая деталь духовного самовыражения приводит к особой форме символического поклонения, и этот союз всего народа под началом властей и клира дает возможность потратить огромные деньги на такие огромные, разукрашенные строения. Однако если нация развивается и индивидуальные особенности раскалывают ее единство, религия поднимается на более высокий уровень, на котором она переходит от символов к отчетливо сознательной жизни; тем самым становится необходимым как разделить богослужение на многие формы, так и освободить зрелую религию из-под священнической и политической опеки. В XVI столетии Европа приближалась, хотя и медленно, к этому уровню духовного развития, и не лютеранство, подчинявшее нацию религии суверена, а кальвинизм с его глубокой концепцией религиозной свободы положил начало такому переходу. Повсюду, где он только появился, он породил многообразие жизненных направлений, сломал власть государства над религией и в значительной степени положил конец священничеству. Тем самым он упразднил символическую форму поклонения и отказался подчиниться требованиям искусства, то есть воплотить свой религиозный дух в грандиозных монументах.

Мне скажут, что символическое служение было в Израиле, но это скорее поддерживает мои доводы, чем ослабляет их. Не учит ли нас Новый Завет, что служение теням, процветавшее до Христа, оказывается устаревшим и близким к исчезновению, когда исполнились пророчества? В Израиле мы находим государственную религию, которая одна и та же для всего народа. Руководят ею священники. Проявляется она в символах, а воплощается в великолепном храме Соломона. Когда такое служение выполнило свою задачу, определенную Господом, Христос пришел пророчествовать о часе, когда Богу будут поклоняться уже не в храме Иерусалима, а в духе и истине. Согласно этому пророчеству, вы не найдете ни следа, ни тени богослужебного искусства во всей апостольской литературе. Видимое священство Аарона на земле уступает место невидимому Первосвященству по чину Мелхиседека на Небесах. Чистая духовность вырывается из тумана символов.

Hiermede nu stemt, en dit is mijn tweede bewijsgrond, de hoogere verhouding van Religie en Kunst overeen. Ik beroep mij hier op twee deskundigen, die, als beiden geheel buiten het Calvinisme staande, voor onpartijdige getuigen mogen gelden, op Hegel en Von Hartmann. Hegel zegt ons, dat de kunst, die op een lageren trap aan eene nog in het zinlijke gebondene Religie haar hoogste uitdrukking en bezieling leent, haar juist daardoor allengs over haar zinlijke beperking heen helpt; want dat wel op het lagere standpunt alleen eene door kunst gedragen aanbidding den geest vrijmaakt, maar, zoo besluit hij „die schöne Kunst ist nicht die höchste Befreiung”; die ligt alleen in het onzienlijk geestelijke ¹⁾. En sterker nog leert Von Hartmann ons: „Oorspronkelijk treedt de Godsvereering in onafscheidbare eenheid met de kunst op, overmits de Religie op dit lagere standpunt, nog de neiging bezit, om zich in den aesthetischen schijn te verliezen. Alle kunsten treden dan in dienst van de culte op, niet alleen toonkunst, schilderkunst, beeldhouwkunst en bouwkunst, maar ook de danskunst, de mimiek en het drama. Hoe meer daarentegen de Religie zich tot geestelijke rijpheid ontwikkelt, hoe meer ze zich van de kunst, als buiten staat om haar wezen uit te drukken, 142losmaakt. En het slotresultaat,” zoo besluit hij, „van dit historische scheidingsproces moet zijn, dat de gerijpte Religie geheel afstand doet van de prikkeling die het aesthetische schijngevoel haar belooft, om zich geheel en uitsluitend te concentreeren op de verwekking van echt godsdienstige gewaarwordingen”²⁾.

My second proof is that this agrees entirely with the higher relation between Religion and Art. Here I appeal to Hegel and Von Hartmann who, both standing outside Calvinism, may be relied upon as being disinterested witnesses. Hegel says that art, which, at a lower stage of development, imparts to a still sensual religion its highest expression and animation, finally helps it by these very means to cast off the fetters of sensuality; for though it must be granted that at a lower level it is only the aesthetical worship that liberates the spirit, nevertheless, he concludes, "beautiful art is not its highest emancipation," for that is only found in the realm of the invisible and spiritual. And Von Hartmann even more emphatically declares that: Originally Divine worship appeared inseparably united to art, because, at the lower stage, Religion is still inclined to lose itself in the aesthetic form. At that period, all the arts engage in the service of the cult, not merely music, painting, sculpture and architecture, but also the dance, mimicry and the drama. The more, on the other hand, Religion develops into spiritual maturity, the more it will extricate itself from art's bandages, because art always remains incapable of expressing the very essence of Religion. 9 And the final result of this historic process of separation must be, that Religion, when fully matured, will rather entirely abstain from the stimulant by which aesthetic pseudoemotion intoxicated it, in order to concentrate itself wholly and exclusively upon the quickening of those emotions which are purely religious'*

My second proof is that this agrees entirely with the higher relation between Religion and Art. Here I appeal to Hegel and Von Hartmann who, both standing outside Calvinism, may be relied upon as being disinterested witnesses. Hegel says that art, which, at a lower stage of development, imparts to a still 198 sensual religion its highest expression, finally helps it by these very means to cast off the fetters of sensuality; for though it must be granted that at a lower level it is only the aesthetical worship that liberates the spirit, nevertheless, he concludes, “beautiful art is not its highest emancipation”, for that is only found in the realm of the invisible and spiritual. And Von Hartmann even more emphatically declares that: Originally Divine worship appeared inseparably united to art, because, at the lower stage, Religion is still inclined to lose itself in the aesthetic form. At that period, all the arts, he says, engage in the service of the cult, not merely music, painting, sculpture and architecture, but also the dance. mimicry and the drama. The more, on the other hand, Religion develops into spiritual maturity, the more it will extricate itself from art’s bandages, because art always remains incapable of expressing the very essence of Religion. And the final result of this historic process of separation, he concludes, must be that Religion, when fully matured, will rather entirely abstain from the stimulant by which aesthetic pseudo-emotion intoxicated it, in order to concentrate itself wholly and exclusively upon the quickening of those emotions which are purely religious.”

Minha segunda prova é que isto concorda inteiramente com a relação mais elevada entre a Religião e a Arte. Aqui, apelo para Hegel e Von Hartmann que, encontrando-se fora do Calvinismo, podem ser contados como sendo testemunhas imparciais. Hegel diz que a arte que, num estágio inferior de desenvolvimento confere a uma religião até agora sensorial sua mais alta expressão, finalmente por estes mesmos meios ajuda a rejeitar os grilhões da sensorialidade; pois embora deva ser admitido que num nível inferior é apenas a adoração estética que liberta o espírito, todavia, conclui, “as belas-artes não são a mais alta emancipação do espírito”, pois esta somente é encontrada no reino do invisível e do espiritual. E Von Hartmann declara ainda mais enfaticamente que: Originalmente a adoração divina apareceu inseparavelmente unida a arte, porque, no estágio inferior, a Religião ainda está inclinada a dissipar-se na forma estética. Naquele período, diz ele, todas as artes estavam envolvidas no serviço religioso, não somente a música, a pintura, a escultura e a arquitetura, mas também a dança, a mímica e o drama.

Por outro lado, quanto mais a Religião se desenvolve em maturidade espiritual, tanto mais se livrará das ataduras da arte, porque a arte sempre é incapaz de expressar a própria essência da Religião. E o resultado final deste processo histórico de separação, ele conclui, deve ser que a Religião quando plenamente madura se absterá completamente do estimo pelo qual a pseudo-emoção estética a intoxicou, a fim de concentrar-se total e exclusivamente sobre o avivamento daquelas emoções que são puramente espirituais”.

Мое второе доказательство — в том, что все это полностью согласуется с более высокими отношениями между религией и искусством. Здесь я обращаюсь к Гегелю и фон Гартману. Оба не принадлежат к поклонникам кальвинизма, и можно положиться на них как на незаинтересованных свидетелей. Гегель говорит, что искусство, которое на низшей стадии развития дает высшее самовыражение все еще чувственной религии, в конце концов помогает ей сбросить оковы чувственности. Допустим, что на низшем уровне только эстетическое поклонение освобождает дух, однако «прекрасное искусство не является высшей формой проявления религии», ибо форму эту можно найти лишь в царстве невидимого и духовного. Фон Гартман пишет еще выразительнее: «Поначалу поклонение божеству неразрывно соединено с искусством, поскольку на низшей стадии религия все еще склонна облекаться в эстетическую форму. На этой стадии все искусства вовлечены в служение культа, и это относится не только к музыке, живописи, скульптуре и архитектуре, но и к танцу, пантомиме, драме. Чем большей духовной зрелости религия достигает, тем больше она освобождается от пут искусства, поскольку оно не способно выразить саму ее сущность. К концу этого исторического процесса религия, полностью созревшая, скорее будет полностью воздерживаться от эстетического стимулятора, посредством которого ее отравляли ложные эмоции, и сосредоточится полностью на пробуждении чисто религиозных эмоций».

Deze grondgedachte nu, zoo van Hegel als van Von Hartmann, is volkomen juist. Religie en kunst hebben elk een eigen levenssfeer, sferen die, aanvankelijk nauwelijks onderscheiden en deswege ineengemengd, bij rijker ontwikkeling van zelf uiteengaan. Zoo ziet ge het aan tweelingen in de wieg nauwelijks aan, of ze tot het manlijk of vrouwelijk geslacht behooren, maar als straks die twee tot volwassen leeftijd zijn gekomen, staan man en vrouw elk met een eigen verschijning, met eigen gaven, en met een eigen zielsuitdrukking voor u. Niet alleen de Religie maar ook de Kunst vraagt daarom bij hooger ontwikkeling om een zelfstandig leven, en de twee stengels die aanvankelijk dooreengevlochten waren en daarom van een zelfde plant schenen te zijn, blijken dan te stoelen elk op een eigen wortel. Dat is het proces van Aäron tot Christus, van Aholiab tot de Apostelen des Heeren, en krachtens datzelfde proces neemt in de zestiende eeuw het Calvinisme een hooger standpunt in dat het Romanisme veroverd had. Dienovereenkomstig kon en mocht dus het religieus Calvinisme geen eigen kunststijl uit zijn religieus beginsel ontwikkelen. Veeleer moest het zijn nobel streven zijn, de Religie en met haar de Godsvereering, al meer uit den zinnelijken vorm los te wikkelen en krachtig geestelijk te doen opbloeien. Daartoe was het in staat door den krachtigen polsslag, waarmeê destijds het religieuse leven door de aderen der ziel trilde, en dat er thans ook onder ons zoo velen zijn die onze kerken koud en unheimisch gaan vinden en naar kunst in het bedehuis terug verlangen, is alleen daaraan te wijten, dat de polsslag van het religieuse leven onder ons thans zooveel flauwer klopt dan in de dagen der martelaren. Maar wel verre van hieraan recht te ontleenen 143 om tot een lageren trap van Religie terug te zinken, behoort dat inzinken van het religieuse leven aan Gods kinderen het gebed op de lippen te leggen om krachtiger inwerking van den Heiligen Geest. Het weer kindsch worden van een grijsaard is pijnlijke achteruitgang, een man die God vrees en in de klaarheid des geestes staat, grijpt naar het speelgoed zijner kindsche jaren niet terug.

And both Hegel and Von Hartmann are correct in this fundamental thought. Religion and Art have each a life-sphere of their own; these may at first be scarcely distinguishable from each other and therefore closely intertwined, but, with a richer development, these two spheres necessarily separate. Looking at two babies in a cradle you can scarcely tell which is boy or girl, but when, having reached the years of maturity, they stand before you, as man and woman, you see them both with forms, and traits, and modes of expression, peculiarly their own. And so, arrived at their highest development, both Religion and Art demand an independent existence, and the two stems which at first were intertwined and seemed to belong to the same plant, now appear to spring from a root of their own. This is the process from Aaron to Christ, from Bezaleel and Aholiab to the Apostles. And, by virtue of that same process, Calvinism occupies a higher standpoint in the 16th century than Romanism could reach. Consequently Calvinism was neither able, nor even permitted, to develop an art-style of its own from its religious principle. To have done this would have been to slide back to a lower level of religious life. On the contrary, its nobler effort must be to release religion and divine worship more and more from its sensual form and to encourage its vigorous spirituality. This it was enabled to do because of the powerful pulsebeat by which at that time the religious life coursed through the arteries of mankind. And the fact that in these days, our Calvinistic churches are deemed cold and unheimish, and a reintroduction of the symbolical in our places of worship is longed for, we owe to the sad reality that the pulse- 10 beat of the religious life in our times, is so much fainter than it was in the days of the martyrs. But so far from borrowing from this the right of redescending to a lower level of religion, this faintness of the religious life ought to inspire the prayer upon the lips of God's children for a mightier inworking of the Holy Spirit. Second childhood, in your old age, is a painful, retrograde movement. The man who fears God, and whose faculties remain clear and unimpaired, does not on the brink of age return to the playthings of his infancy.

And both Hegel and Von Hartmann are correct in this fundamental thought. Religion and Art have each a life-sphere of their own these may at first be scarcely distinguishable from each other and therefore closely intertwined, but, with a richer development, these two spheres necessarily separate. Looking at two babies in a cradle you can scarcely tell which is boy or girl, but 199 when, having reached the years of maturity, they stand before you, as man and woman, you see them both with forms, and traits, and modes of expression peculiarly their own. And so, arrived at their highest development, both Religion and Art demand an independent existence, and the two stems which at first were intertwined and seemed to belong to the same plant, now appear to spring from a root of their own. This is the process from Aaron to Christ, from Bezaleel and Aholiab to the Apostles. And, by virtue of that same process, Calvinism occupies a higher standpoint in the 16th century than Romanism could reach. Consequently Calvinism was neither able, nor even permitted, to develop an art-style of its own from its religious principle. To have done this would have been to slide back to a lower level of religious life. On the contrary, its nobler effort must be to release religion and divine worship more and more from its sensual form and to encourage its vigorous spirituality. This it was enabled to do because of the powerful pulsebeat by which at that time the religious life coursed through the arteries of mankind. And the fact that in these days our Calvinistic churches are deemed cold and unheimisch, and a reintroduction of the symbolical in our places of worship is longed for. we owe to the sad reality that the pulsebeat of the religious life in our times is so much fainter than it was in the days of our martyrs. But so far from borrowing from this the right of re-descending to a lower level of religion, this faintness of the religious life ought to inspire the prayer for a mightier inworking of the Holy Spirit. Second childhood, in your 200 old age, is a painful, retrograde movement. The man who fears God. and whose faculties remain clear and unimpaired, does not on the brink of age return to the playthings of his infancy.

E tanto Hegel quanto Von Hartmann estão corretos neste pensamento básico. A Religião e a Arte cada uma tem sua própria esfera de vida; estas, a princípio, dificilmente podem ser distinguíveis uma da outra e portanto estão intimamente entrelaçadas, porém, com um desenvolvimento mais rico estas duas esferas necessariamente separam-se. Olhando para dois bebês em um berço, dificilmente vocês podem dizer qual é menino ou menina, mas quando, tendo alcançado os anos de maturidade, eles se colocam diante de vocês como homem e mulher, vocês os vêem com formas, traços e modos de expressão peculiarmente próprios.

Do mesmo modo, tendo chegado a seu desenvolvimento superior, tanto a Religião quanto a Arte exigem uma existência independente, e os dois troncos, que a princípio estavam entrelaçados e pareciam pertencer a mesma planta, agora parecem nascer de uma raiz própria. Este é o processo de Arão para Cristo, de Bezaleel e Aoliabe para os Apóstolos. E, em virtude deste mesmo processo, o Calvinismo no século 16 ocupa um ponto de vista mais alto do que o Romanismo poderia alcançar. Conseqüentemente, o Calvinismo não foi capaz de desenvolver um estilo de arte próprio a partir de seu princípio religioso, nem mesmo o permitiu. Fazer isto seria descambar de volta para um nível inferior da vida religiosa. Ao contrário, seu esforço mais nobre deve ser libertar a religião e a adoração divina mais e mais de sua forma sensorial e encorajar sua vigorosa espiritualidade. Isto ele estava habilitado a fazer por causa da pulsação poderosa pela qual naquele tempo a vida religiosa corria através das artérias da humanidade.

O fato de que hoje nossas igrejas calvinistas são consideradas frias e unheimish, e de que uma reintrodução do simbólico em nossos lugares de adoração é ardentemente desejada, devemos à triste realidade de que a pulsação da vida religiosa em nossos dias está muito mais fraca que estava nos dias de nossos mártires. Mas longe de pedir emprestado desta o direito de descer de novo ao nível inferior da religião, esta fraqueza da vida religiosa deve inspirar à oração por uma obra mais poderosa do Espírito Santo. A segunda infância, em sua velhice, é um movimento retrógrado, doloroso. O homem que teme a Deus e cujas faculdades permanecem claras e inalterada, não retorna do ponto de maioridade para os brinquedos de sua infância.

Оба они, и Гегель, и фон Гартман, правы в основной мысли. Религия и искусство имеют свои жизненные сферы. Сначала сферы эти могут едва различаться и потому быть тесно переплетенными, но в дальнейшем развитии они неизбежно разделяются. Глядя на двух младенцев в колыбели, вы едва сможете сказать, кто из них мальчик, кто девочка. Но когда они достигнут зрелого возраста, станут мужчиной и женщиной, вы увидите их собственные черты и способы поведения. Достигнув высшего развития, и религия, и искусство требуют независимости; два стебля, которые сначала были переплетены, как если бы они принадлежали одному растению, теперь оказываются произрастающими из своих собственных корней. Так идет от Аарона — к Христу, от Веселиила и Аголиафа — к апостолам. В силу такого же процесса кальвинизм занимает более высокое положение в XVI веке, чем католицизм. Исходя из своего религиозного принципа, он не мог и даже не позволял себе развить свой собственный стиль в искусстве. Сделав это, он отступил бы назад, на более низкий уровень религиозной жизни. Напротив, его благородные усилия должны были прилагаться к тому, чтобы все больше освобождать религию и поклонение Богу от чувственных форм и поощрять зрелую духовность. Сделать это он мог благодаря тому, что в тот период религиозная жизнь человечества была мощной и напряженной. Теперь, когда кальвинистские церкви считают холодными и неуютными, захотелось снова ввести символический элемент в богослужение. Этим мы обязаны печальной реальности, состоящей в том, что религиозная жизнь сейчас значительно слабее, чем во дни наших мучеников. Не имея права на этой основе вновь опуститься на более низкий уровень, тусклость религиозной жизни должна вдохновить нас на молитву о более могущественной внутренней работе Святого Духа. Второе детство в пожилом возрасте — болезненное, ретроградное явление. Если человек, боящийся Бога, сохраняет свои способности действенными и неповрежденными, он не возвращается в старости к игрушкам детства.

Nog slechts ééne bedenking zou na mijn dusver geleverd betoog stand kunnen houden, en ook die wil ik daarom onder de oogen zien. Men kon namelijk de vraag opwerpen of een wezenlijk principiëele levensrichting toch niet een eigen kunststijl kon en moest scheppen, zij het dan al buiten Religie en Culte om. Doch dan worde die vraag ook in al haar scherpte genomen. Niet als bedoelde men, dat ook het Calvinisme, bijaldien het metterdaad een eigen aesthetische beteekenis heeft, dan toch aan de kunstbeoefening zekere eigen richting had behooren te geven; immers dat het dit metterdaad deed, zal ons straks vanzelf blijken. Veeleer moet de vraag dan aldus luiden, vooreerst of er een kunststijl in alomvattenden zin, bij afsluiting van de sfeer der Religie denkbaar is; en, ten andere, of, stel dit ware zoo, de voortbrenging van zulk een niet-religieuse kunstbeheersching van het Calvinisme kon worden gevergd. En dan begin ik, met wat aangaat de eerste vraag, vast te stellen, dat de historie der kunst dusver nog nimmer een alomvattenden kunststijl buiten verband met de Religie zag opkomen; en dat juist deswege geen nieuwe kunststijl meer te wachten is. Let wel, ik spreek nu niet van een school bij een enkele der kunsten, maar van een kunststijl, die op alle kunsten saam één concentrisch stempel drukt. En dan ware misschien alleen van de Romeinsche kunst en van die der Renaissance te beweren dat een buitenreligieuse geestesdrang hier een alzijdige openbaring in kunstvormen zocht. De koepel, om nu van den bouwstijl uit te gaan, is in de Romeinsche en straks in de Byzantijnsche kunst geen uitdrukking van een religieuse maar van een majesteits-gedachte. De koepel symboliseert de wereldheerschappij, en, zij het ook in 144anderen zin, toch moet ook van de Renaissance beleden, dat ze niet op het heilig erf, maar in den kring van het staats- en burgerleven opkwam. Nu bespreek ik de Renaissance in het derde deel mijner lezing nader, maar merk, met opzicht tot den Romeinschen kunststijl, reeds hier op, dat een stijl, die schier al zijn motieven aan de Grieksche kunst ontleende, nauwelijks op zelfstandigheid van karakter aanspraak kan maken; en voorts dat de staatsidee in Rome derwijs met de religieuse idee was samengegroeid, dat met name in den keizerstijd toen de Romeinsche kunst haar bloeitijdperk bereikte, en voor den Divus Augustus het offer werd geplengd, Staat en Religie te scheiden eenvoudig onhistorisch is.

One more objection might maintain itself after this demonstration, and that too I want to face. The question may be asked whether a really independent life-tendency should not create its own art-style, even if it developed itself as absolutely secular. Let the real meaning of the objection be well understood. It does not suggest that Calvinism if truly possessed of an aesthetic significance, should have given a certain direction to the practice of art, for the fact that Calvinism has truly done this will presently show itself. The point of this objection hits deeper, and puts the question: whether in the first place a secular art-style is conceivable ; and in the second place, whether the creation of such a purely secular and dominating art-style could have been demanded of Calvinism. The answer I make to the first is: that in the history of art no record of the rise of such an all-embracing art-style independent of Religion, is to be found. Mark you, I do not here speak of a school of a single art. but of an art- style which puts a concentric impress upon all the arts together. To a certain degree it could be asserted of Roman art and of that of the Renaissance that, although devoid of a leading religious impulse, they nevertheless reached an all-sided revelation in art-forms. Speaking of architecture, the dome in Roman and Byzantian art is not an expression of a religious thought but of political energy. The dome symbolizes world-power, and, though it may 11 be in a different sense, of the Renaissance also it must be confessed, that it did not take its rise in religion, but in the circles of civil and social life. Now the Renaissance will be considered more fully in the third part of this lecture, but with respect to the Roman art-style I here answer, first, that a style, which borrowed almost all its motives from Greek art can scarcely boast of an independent character ; and secondly, that, in Rome, the Stateidea had become so identified with the Religious idea, that when, in the period of the emperors, art reached its height of prosperity while sacrifices were burned to Divus Augustus, it is unhistorical to consider State and Religion any longer as being at that time separate spheres.

One more objection might maintain itself after this demonstration, and that too I want to face. The question may be asked whether a really independent life-tendency should not create its own art-style, even if it developed itself as absolutely secular. Let the real meaning of the objection be well understood. It does not suggest that Calvinism if truly possessed of an esthetic significance should have given a certain direction to the practice of art, for the fact that Calvinism has truly done this will presently show itself. The point of this objection hits deeper, and puts the question whether in the first place a secular art-style is conceivable; and in the second place, whether the creation of such a purely secular and dominating art-style could have been demanded of Calvinism. The answer I make to the first is: that in the history of art no record of the rise of such an all-embracing art-style independent of Religion, is to be found. Mark you, I do not here speak of a school of a single art, but of an art-style which puts a concentric impress upon all the arts together. To a certain degree it could be asserted of Roman art and of that of the Renaissance that, although devoid of a leading religious impulse, they nevertheless reached an all-sided revelation in art-forms. Speaking of architecture, the dome in Roman and Byzantine art is not an expression of a religious thought but of political energy. The dome symbolizes world-power, and, though it may 201 be in a different sense, of the Renaissance also it must be confessed that it did not take its rise in religion, but in the circles of civil and social life. Now the Renaissance will be considered more fully in the third part of this lecture, but with respect to the Roman art-style I here answer, first, that a style, which borrowed almost all its motives from Greek art can scarcely boast of an independent character; and secondly, that, in Rome, the State-idea had become so identified with the Religious idea, that when, in the period of the emperors, art reached its height of prosperity while sacrifices were burned to Divus Augustus, it is unhistorical to consider State and Religion any longer as being at that time separate spheres.

Segundo esta demonstração poderia sustentar-se uma objeção a mais, e esta eu também preciso enfrentar. A questão a ser colocada é, se uma tendência de vida realmente independente não deveria criar seu próprio estilo de arte, mesmo se ela se desenvolvesse como absolutamente secular. Deixem o significado real da objeção ser bem entendido. Ela não sugere que o Calvinismo, se verdadeiramente dominado por uma importância estética, deveria ter dado uma certa direção à prática da arte, pelo fato de que ele sinceramente tem feito esta vontade exibir-se agora.

O ponto desta objeção toca mais fundo e coloca a questão, em primeiro lugar, se é concebível um estilo de arte secular; e em segundo lugar, se poderia ter sido exigido do Calvinismo a criação de um estilo de arte puramente secular e dominante como este. A resposta que dou à primeira é: que na história da arte não é encontrado nenhum registro do surgimento de um estilo de arte todo-abrangente independente da Religião como tal. Observem, não falo aqui de uma escola de uma arte em particular, mas de um estilo de arte que coloca uma impressão concêntrica sobre todas as artes juntas.

Num certo grau poderia ser dito sobre a arte Romana e sobre a arte da Renascença que, embora destituídas de um impulso religioso dominante, todavia elas alcançaram uma revelação multifacetada em formas artísticas. Falando de arquitetura, a cúpula em Roma e a arte Bizantina não são uma expressão de um pensamento religioso, mas de energia política. A cúpula simboliza o poder mundial, e, embora seja num sentido diferente, sobre a Renascença também deve ser confessado que ela não deve sua origem a religião, mas aos círculos civil e social da vida.

Quanto a Renascença, ela será considerada mais plenamente na terceira parte desta Palestra, porém em relação ao estilo de arte Romano, respondo aqui, primeiro, que um estilo que tomou emprestado quase todos os seus motivos da arte grega dificilmente pode gabar-se de um caráter independente; e segundo, que em Roma, o conceito de Estado tornou-se tão identificado com o conceito Religioso que quando, no período dos imperadores, a arte alcançou seu ápice de prosperidade enquanto sacrifícios eram queimados ao Divus Augustus, não é histórico considerar o Estado e a Religião como sendo esferas ainda separadas naquele tempo.

Кто-то мог бы выдвинуть еще одно возражение, и на него я тоже хочу ответить. Не должна ли независимая жизненная тенденция создать свой собственный стиль в искусстве, если она развивается как абсолютно мирская? Надо понять о чем здесь идет речь. Мой оппонент не имеет в виду, что, если кальвинизм на самом деле обладает эстетической ценностью, он должен был создать в сфере искусства определенное направление. Кальвинизм создал свое направление, и вскоре мы это покажем. Основной пункт возражения лежит глубже и ставит вопросы иначе: во-первых, возможен ли чисто мирской стиль в искусстве; и, во-вторых, можно ли требовать от кальвинизма чисто мирского и доминирующего стиля? На первый вопрос отвечу следующим образом: история искусства не знает всеобъемлющего стиля, независимого от религии. Заметьте, я говорю не об отдельной школе, а о направлении, которое оказывает концентрированное воздействие на все виды искусств. В определенной степени можно сказать, что римское искусство и искусство Ренессанса, хотя и лишенные руководства религии, достигли в своих художественных формах всестороннего выражения. Говоря об архитектуре, можно сказать, что римский или византийский купол выражает не религиозную мысль, но политическую силу. Он символизирует всемирную власть. Возможно, в несколько ином смысле, можно признать, что и Ренессанс имел свое начало не в религии, а в кругах, связанных с гражданской и общественной жизнью. Это мы обсудим подробнее в третьей части лекции, что же касается римского искусства, я отвечу: во-первых, стиль, который почти все свои мотивы заимствовал из греческого искусства, едва ли может претендовать на независимый характер; во-вторых, в Риме идея государства стала тождественной идее религиозной, а во времена императоров искусство достигло наивысшего процветания, и жертвы приносили Божественному Августу, так что неисторично рассматривать государство и религию, словно они были тогда раздельными сферами.

Doch ook afgezien van deze geschiedkundige uitkomst, mag betwijfeld, of buiten de Religie om zulk een eigen alomvattende kunststijl ooit zou kunnenopkomen. Voor het opkomen toch van zulk een stijl wordt in het ziels- en zinnenleven van een volk een centraal motief vereischt, dat geheel het leven van binnen uit beheerscht, en dientengevolge in de geheele kunstbelichaming van dit geestelijke centrum tot aan den buitensten omtrek doorwerkt. Niet natuurlijk alsof een eigen kunstwereld het voortbrengsel van eigen gedachte ware. Intellectueele kunst is geen kunst, en Hegels poging om de kunst uit de ideeën en gedachten te verklaren, ging tegen het wezen zelf der kunst in. Ons intellectueel, ons ethisch, ons religieus en ons aesthetisch leven beschikken elk over een eigen sfeer. Deze sferen nu loopen evenwijdig en mogen daarom niet de ééne uit de andere worden afgeleid. Het is één zelfde beweging, één zelfde drang, één zelfde tinteling in den mystieken wortel van ons aanzijn, die in deze vierderlei vertakking openbaring naar buiten zoekt. Ook de kunst is niet een zijtak aan een hoofdtak, die reeds uitschoot, maar een eigen tak, die zelfstandig uit den stam van ons leven opkomt, ook al is ze het naast aan de Religie, veel nauwer dan aan ons denken of aan ons ethisch aanzijn, verwant. Vraagt men nu echter, hoe er op elk dezer vier terreinen eenheid van conceptie kan ontstaan, dan blijkt telkens weer, dat die eenheid in het eindige alleen op dat ééne punt te vinden is, waar ons leven uit de bron van het Oneindige opwelt. Geen eenheid in uw denken 145 dan door een wel aaneengesloten wijsgeerig systeem, en geen systeem van wijsbegeerte dien naam waard, dat niet tot de uitgangen uit het Oneindige opklimt. Zoo ook geen eenheid in uw zedelijk bestaan dan door het gebonden zijn van uw innerlijk bestaan aan de zedelijke wereldorde, en geen zedelijke wereldorde denkbaar dan onder den indruk van een Oneindige macht, die de orde in deze zedelijke wereld besteld heeft. En zoo nu ook is er geen eenheid in uw kunstopenbaring bestaanbaar dan onder de kunstbezieling van een Eeuwig Schoon, dat uit de bron van het Oneindige ons toevloeit en ons tot het Oneindige opheft. Zoo kan er dus geen karakteristieke, alomvattende kunststijl opkomen, dan ten gevolge van de eigenaardige aandrift, die uit het Oneindige in ons innerlijk aanzijn werkt, en overmits nu de Religie daarin juist van intellect, zedelijkheid en kunst onderscheiden is, dat zij alleen de gemeenschap met den Oneindige in ons zelfbewustzijn tot stand brengt, is het roepen om een eigen kunststijl, buiten verband met uw religieus beginsel, eenvoudig ongerijmd.

But, apart from this historic outcome, it may be questioned, whether such an all-embracing art-style ever could have originated outside of Religion. The rise of such a style demands a central motive in the mental and emotional life of a people, which shall dominate the whole existence from within, and which consequently carries its effect from this spiritual centre to its outermost circumference. Not of course as though a national world of art ever could be the product of intellectual thought. Intellectual art is no art, and the effort put forth by Hegel to draw art from thoughts, militated against the very nature of art. Our intellectual, ethical, religious and aesthetic life each commands a sphere of its own. These spheres run parallel and do not allow the derivation of one from the other. It is the central emotion, the central impulse, and the central animation, in the mystical root of our being, which seeks to reveal itself to the outer world in this fourfold ramification. Art also is no side-shoot on a principal branch, but an independent branch that grows from the trunk of our life itself, even though it is tar more nearly allied to Religion than to our thinking or to our ethical being. If however it be asked how there can arise a unity of conception embracing these four domains, 12 it constantly appears that in the finite this unity is only found at that point where it springs from the fountain of the Infinite. There is no unity in your thinking save by a well-ordered philosophical system, and there is no system of philosophy which does not ascend to the issues of the Infinite. In the same way there is no unity in your moral existence save by the union of your inner existence with the moral world-order, and there is no moral world-order conceivable but for the impression of an Infinite power that has ordained order in this moral world. Thus also no unity in the revelation of art is conceivable, except by the art-inspiration of an Eternal Beautiful, which flows from the fountain of the Infinite, and raises us to the Infinite. Hence no characteristic all-embracing art-style can arise except as a consequence of the peculiar impulse from the Infinite that operates in our inmost being. And since this is the very privilege of Religion, over intellect, morality and art, that she alone effects the communion with the Infinite in our self-consciousness, the call for a secular, all-embracing art-style, independent of any religious principle, is simply absurd.

But, apart from this historic outcome, it may be questioned, whether such an all-embracing art-style ever could have originated outside of Religion. The rise of such a style demands a central motive in the mental and emotional life of a people, which shall dominate the whole existence from within, and which consequently carries its effect from this spiritual center to its outermost circumference. Not of course as though a national world of art ever could be the product of intellectual thought. Intellectual art is no art, and the effort put forth by Hegel to draw out from thoughts, militated against the very nature of art. Our intellectual, ethical, religious and aesthetic life each commands a sphere of its own. These spheres run parallel and do not allow the derivation of one from the other. It is the central emotion, the central impulse, and the central animation, in the mystical root of our being, 202 which seeks to reveal itself to the outer world in this fourfold ramification. Art also is no side-shoot on a principal branch, but an independent branch that grows from the trunk of our life itself, even though it is far more nearly allied to Religion than to our thinking or to our ethical being. If, however, it be asked how there can arise a unity of conception embracing these four domains, it constantly appears that in the finite this unity is only found at that point where it springs from the fountain of the infinite. There is no unity in your thinking save by a well-ordered philosophical system, and there is no system of philosophy which does not ascend to the issues of the infinite. In the same way there is no unity in your moral existence save by the union of your inner existence with the moral world-order, and there is no moral world-order conceivable but for the impression of an Infinite power that has ordained order in this moral world. Thus also no unity in the revelation of art is conceivable, except by the art-inspiration of an Eternal Beautiful, which flows from the fountain of the Infinite. Hence no characteristic all-embracing art-style can arise except as a consequence of the peculiar impulse from the Infinite that operates in our inmost being. And since this is the very privilege of Religion, over intellect, morality and art, that she alone effects the communion with the Infinite, in our self-consciousness, the call for a secular, all-embracing art-style, independent of any religious principle, is simply absurd.

Mas, à parte deste resultado histórico, pode ser questionado se um estilo de arte todo-abrangente como este jamais poderia ter se originado fora da Religião. O surgimento de um estilo como este exige um motivo central na vida mental e emocional de um povo, o qual dominará toda a existência interior, e que conseqüentemente levará seus efeitos deste centro espiritual até sua circunferência mais externa. Certamente que o mundo da arte de uma nação não pode nunca ser o produto do pensamento intelectual. Arte intelectual não é arte, e o esforço proposto por Hegel para extraí-la dos pensamentos teóricos, militava contra a própria natureza da arte. Nossa vida intelectual, ética, religiosa e estética, cada uma comanda uma esfera própria. Estas esferas correm paralelas e não permitem derivação de uma para a outra. É a emoção central, o impulso central e o entusiasmo central, na raiz mística de nosso ser, que procura revelar-se para o mundo exterior nesta quádrupla manifestação.

A arte também não é um broto lateral num ramo principal, mas um ramo independente que cresce do tronco de nossa própria vida, ainda que esteja muito mais proximamente aliado à Religião do que ao nosso pensamento ou ao nosso ser ético. Contudo, se for perguntado como pode surgir uma unidade de concepção abraçando estes quatro campos, constantemente aparece que no finito esta unidade é encontrada somente naquele ponto onde nasce da fonte do Infinito. Não há unidade em seus pensamentos salvo por um sistema filosófico bem ordenado, e não há sistema de Filosofia que não se eleve para as questões do Infinito.

Do mesmo modo, não há unidade em sua existência moral, salvo pela união de sua existência interior com a ordem mundial moral, e não há ordem mundial moral concebível senão pela influência de um poder Infinito que tem posto ordem neste mundo moral. Assim também não é concebível nenhuma unidade na revelação de arte, exceto pela inspiração artística por uma Beleza Eterna, que flui da fonte do Infinito. Por isso, nenhum estilo característico de arte todo-abrangente pode surgir exceto como conseqüência do impulso peculiar do Infinito que opera em nosso ser interior. E visto que este é o próprio privilégio da Religião, acima do intelecto, da moralidade e da arte, que somente ela produz a comunhão com o Infinito em nossa autoconsciência, a chamada para um estilo de arte secular, todo-abrangente, independente de qualquer princípio religioso, é simplesmente absurdo.

Если же отойти от исторических событий, можно спросить, существовал ли когда-либо всеохватный стиль в искусстве, возникший вне религии? Для этого необходимо, чтобы в умственной и эмоциональной жизни народа господствовал центральный мотив, который постепенно распространял бы свое влияние от духовного центра к периферии. Конечно, национальный мир искусства порожден не мыслью. Интеллектуальное искусство — не искусство, и попытка Гегеля вывести его из мысли противоречит самой сути искусства. Интеллектуальная, этическая, религиозная и эстетическая жизнь, каждая в отдельности, управляет своей собственной сферой. Сферы существуют отдельно, и не следует выводить одну сферу из другой. Главное переживание, центральный импульс, центральное вдохновение в самом корне нашего бытия ищут того, чтобы открыть себя внешнему миру. Искусство — не побочный отросток на главной ветви, а независимая ветвь, которая вырастает из ствола самой нашей жизни, хотя оно и гораздо в большей степени сближается с религией, чем с нашим мышлением, или с нашим этическим существованием. Если же, тем не менее, спросят, как же возникнет единство концепции, вбирающей в себя эти четыре сферы, то окажется, что в пределах конечного это единство находится только в той точке, через которую оно вытекает из источника Бесконечного. Единство в нашем мышлении обеспечено лишь хорошо организованной философской системой; и нет системы философии, которая не возвышалась бы до вопроса о Бесконечном. Точно так же единство в нравственном бытии обеспечено лишь соединением нашего внутреннего существования с нравственным миропорядком; и нет нравственного миропорядка, не порожденного Бесконечной Силой, которая и учредила порядок в нравственном мире. Таким образом, единство в выражении искусство обретает лишь по вдохновению Вечной Красотой, которое проистекает из источника Бесконечного. Всеобъемлющий стиль в искусстве может возникнуть только в результате особого импульса, а он, этот импульс — от Бесконечного, действующего в самых глубинах нашего бытия. Поскольку преимущество религии над интеллектом, моралью и искусством заключается в том, что она одна создает в нашем сознании связь с Бесконечным, сама мысль о всеобъемлющем стиле в искусстве, независимом от религиозного принципа, просто нелепа.

Versta het toch wel, dat de kunst geen franje aan het kleed, geen spel bij het leven, maar in dit leven een hoogst ernstige macht is, en dat juist deswege de hoofdvariatiën ook in haar levensuiting verband moeten houden met de hoofdschakeeringen in heel ons leven; en overmits nu die hoofdschakeeringen in heel onze menschelijke existentie, alle zonder uitzondering, door onze verhouding tot God worden beheerscht, zoo is het de kunst verlagen en de kunst onderschatten, zoo ge de vertakkingen, waarin de kunststam zich splitst, u buiten verband denkt met den wortel, dien alle menschelijk leven bezit in God. Ge ziet dan ook hoe noch uit het Rationalisme der achttiende eeuw, noch uit de beginselen van 1789 een eigen kunststijl is voortgekomen, en, hoe hard het ook voor onze negentiende eeuwsche kunstwererld zij, ook al haar pogen om een nieuwen, eigen kunststijl te vinden, is op niets uitgeloopen, en nog altijd blijkt ze dan het schoonst te tooveren, zoo ze teruggrijpt naar de motieven van het verlden. En moet nu deswege reeds op zichzelf alle eisch afgewezen, alsof er, afgescheiden van het religieuse uitgangspunt, een eigen kunststijl kon opkomen, zelfs al ware dit anders, dan nóg zou het stellen van dien eisch aan het Calvinisme onzinnig 146 zijn. Of hoe zoudt ge willen, dat een levensbeweging, die in het stellen van alle mensch en alle menschelijk leven voor het aangezichte Gods den oorsprong van haar kracht vond, op zoo uiterst gewichtig gebied, als dat der machtige kunsten, den stoot, de aandrift, de bezieling ten leven buiten God zou gezocht hebben. Van het schamper verwijt, alsof in het niet scheppen van een eigen kunststijl voor het Calvinisme een vernietigend bewijs van geestelijke armoede zou liggen, blijkt alzoo de schaduw zelfs niet over te blijven. Zulk een kunststijl had alleen onder de auspiciën van zijn religieus beginsel kunnen opkomen, en het was juist dit religieus beginsel, dat, omdat het tot een hoogeren trap was opgeklommen, het staan naar symbolische uitdrukking der Religie in het zinlijk schoone én afsneed én verbood.

Understand that art is no fringe that is attached to the garment, and no amusement that is added to life, but a most serious power in our .present existence, and therefore its principal variations must maintain, in their artistic expression, a close relation with the principal variations of our entire lite; and since, without exception, these principal variations of our entire human existence are dominated by our relation to God, would it not be both a degradation and an underestimation of art, if you were to imagine the ramifications, into which the art-trunk divides itself, to be independent of the deepest root which all human life has in God 1\ Consequently no art-style has sprung from the Rationalism of the 18th century, nor from the principle of 1789, and however grievous it may be to our 19th centurv, all her efforts to create a new art- 13 style of her own, have ended in perfect failure, and then only do her artistic productions possess a real charm when she allows herself to be inspired by the wonders of the past.

Thus by itself the possibility must be denied that a proper art-style can originate independently of religion ; but even if this were otherwise, it would still be illogical, and this was my second argument, to demand such a secular tendency of Calvinism. For how can you desire that a life-movement, which found the origin of its power in the arraignment of all men and of all human life before the face of God, should have sought the impulse, the passion and the inspiration for its life oaf side of God in so exceedingly important a domain as that of the mighty arts ? There remains, therefore, no shadow of a reality in the scornful reproach that the non- creation of an art-style of its own is a conclusive proof of Calvinism's artistic poverty. Only under the auspices of its religious principle could Calvinism have created a general art-style, and just because it had reached a so much higher stage of religious development, its very principle forbade it the symbolical expression of its religion in visible and sensual forms.

Understand that art is no fringe that is attached to the garment, and no amusement that is added to life, 203 but a most serious power in our present existence, and therefore its principal variations must maintain, in their artistic expression, a close relation with the principal variations of our entire life; and since, without exception, these principal variations of our entire human existence are dominated by our relation to God, would it not be both a degradation and an underestimation of art, if you were to imagine the ramifications, into which the art-trunk divides itself, to be independent of the deepest root which all human life has in God? Consequently no art-style has sprung from the Rationalism of the 18th century, nor from the principle of 1789, and however grievous it may be to our 19th century, all her efforts to create a new art style of her own have ended in perfect failure, and then only do her artistic productions possess a real charm when she allows herself to he inspired by the wonders of the past.

Thus by itself the possibility must be denied that a proper art style can originate independently of religion; but even if this were otherwise, it would still be illogical, and this was my second argument, to demand such a secular tendency of Calvinism. For how can you desire that a life-movement, which found the origin of its power in the arraignment of all men and of all human life before the face of God, should have sought the impulse, the passion and the inspiration for its life outside of God in so exceedingly important a domain as that of the mighty arts? There remains, therefore, no shadow of a reality in the scornful reproach that the non-creation of an architectural style of its own is a conclusive 204 proof of Calvinism’s artistic poverty. Only under the auspices of its religious principle could Calvinism have created a general art style, and just because it had reached a so much higher stage of religious development, its very principle forbade it the symbolical expression of its religion in visible and sensual forms.

Entender que a arte não é a franja que está atada à roupa, nem o entretenimento que é adicionado à vida, mas um poder mais sério em nossa presente existência, e por isso suas variações principais devem manter em suas expressões artísticas uma íntima relação com as variações principais de toda nossa vida; e visto que estas variações principais de toda nossa existência humana, sem exceção, são dominadas por nossa relação com Deus, não seria tanto uma degradação quanto um menosprezo da arte se vocês imaginassem que as ramificações nas quais o tronco da arte se divide para ser independente da raiz mais profunda que toda vida humana tem em Deus? Conseqüentemente, nenhum estilo de arte nasceu do Racionalismo do século 17, nem do princípio de 1789, e por mais cruel que possa ser para nosso século 19, todos os seus esforços para criar um novo estilo de arte próprio tem acabado em perfeito fiasco, e então suas produções artísticas somente possuem um verdadeiro charme quando permitem-se ser inspiradas pelas maravilhas do passado.

Assim, por si só, deve ser negada a possibilidade que um estilo de arte próprio possa originar-se independentemente da religião; mas mesmo se fosse de outro modo, e este é meu segundo argumento, ainda seria ilógico exigir do Calvinismo uma tendência secular como esta. Pois, como vocês podem desejar que um movimento de vida, que encontrou a fonte de seu poder na acusação de todos os homens e de toda vida humana perante a face de Deus, tivesse visto o impulso, a paixão e a inspiração para sua vida fora de Deus em um campo tão excessivamente importante como este das poderosas artes? Portanto, não resta nenhuma sombra de realidade na reprovação desdenhosa de que a não criação de um estilo arquitetônico próprio é uma prova conclusiva da pobreza artística do Calvinismo. Somente sob os auspícios de seu princípio religioso o Calvinismo poderia ter criado um estilo de arte geral e exatamente porque tinha alcançado um estágio muito mais alto de desenvolvimento religioso, seu próprio princípio proibia a expressão simbólica de sua religião em formas visíveis e sensoriais.

Поймите, что искусство — не бахрома на одежде, не приправа к жизни, но в высшей степени серьезная сила нашего нынешнего бытия. Поэтому его основные видоизменения должны утверждать тесную связь с основными проявлениями нашей жизни; а поскольку все эти проявления определяются нашим отношением к Богу, то мы принизим и себя, и искусство, если решим, что все ветви на стволе искусства не зависят от глубочайшего корня, которым вся человеческая жизнь укоренена в Боге. Никакой стиль в искусстве не возник из рационализма XVIII столетия или из принципов 1789 года. Как ни грустно для нашего XIX столетия, все попытки создать новый собственный стиль окончились полной неудачей, а его творения только тогда обладают подлинной красотой, когда позволили себе вдохновляться шедеврами прошлого.

Таким образом, подлинный стиль в искусстве не может возникнуть независимо от религии; но даже если бы и мог, было бы нелогичным (вот мой второй довод) требовать такой мирской тенденции от кальвинизма. Можно ли желать, чтобы охватывающее всю жизнь движение, которое обрело изначально свою силу в том, что поставило всех людей и всю человеческую жизнь перед лицом Божиим, искало импульс, страсть и вдохновение для своей жизни вне Бога в такой чрезвычайно важной сфере, как искусство? Поэтому нет и тени правды в презрительном упреке, гласящем, что неумение создать свой архитектурный стиль доказывает художественную бедность кальвинизма. Кальвинизм мог бы создать свое направление искусства только в соответствии со своим религиозным принципом. Но как раз потому, что он достиг много более высокой стадии религиозного развития, самый его принцип запретил ему символически выражать свою веру в видимых и чувственных формах.

Het vraagstuk, en hiermede komt ik tot het tweede punt, waarvoor ik uw aandacht vraag, moet dan ook heel anders gesteld. De vraag is niet of het Calvinisme schiep wat het, op zijn hooger standpunt, niet meer mocht scheppen, een eigen kunststijl, maar heel anders: wat uit zijn beginsel voor het wezen van de kunst voortvloeit. Is er m.a.w. in de levens- en wereldbeschouwing van het Calvinisme voor de kunst plaats en zoo ja, welke plaats? Staat zijn beginsel vijandig tegen het wezen der kunst over, of wel, zou ook volgens het Calvinistisch beginsel een wereld zonder kunst een ideëele levenssfeer armer zijn? Niet van het misbruik, maar van het gebruik der kunst handel ik hier. Elk levensgebied heeft de voor dit gebied gestelde grenzen te eerbiedigen. Inbreuk op ander terrein blijft steeds ongeoorloofd, en dan eerst gedijt ons menschelijk leven in hoogere harmonie, als de ontwikkeling van al onze levensfunctiën een evenredige is. De logica van het hoofd mag niet spotten met het gevoel van het hart, noch ook de zin voor het schoone het zwijgen opleggen aan de inspraak der consciëntie. De Religie zelve, hoe heilig ook, moet binnen haar perken teruggedrongen, zoodra ze in bijgeloof, waanzin of dweepzucht de haar gestelde grenzen overschrijdt. Hypertrophie van het hoofd bij atrophie van het hart geeft kranke ontwikkeling; en zoo ook loopt te volbloedige kunstzin, die de consciëntie in 147 bloedarmoede doet verbleeken, op een onschoone disharmonie uit die ons het καλοκαγαθός doet ontglippen. Dat derhalve óók het Calvinisme tegen het drijven van een onheilig spel met vrouweneer en vrouwenschaamte in verzet kwam, en onzedelijk kunstgenot als kunstverlaging gebrandmerkt heeft, valt hier geheel buiten onze beschouwing. Dat alles sterkte tot wraking van het misbruik, en beslist voor het wettig gebruik niets. Dat daarentegen in Calvijn zelf dit wettig gebruik geen tegenstander maar veeleer een pleitbezorger vond, bewijs ik u met zijn eigen woord. Als toch de Schrift ons het eerste optreden van de kunst in Jubals tente meldt, die het spel op harp en orgel uitvond, wijst Calvijn er ons met nadruk op, dat hier gehandeld wordt van praeclara Spiritus Sancti dona, d.i. van treffelijke gaven van den Heiligen Geest; betuigt hij, dat God in dezen kunstzin Jubals geslacht “verrijkt had met uitnemende talenten”; en spreekt hij het luide uit, dat deze kunstvindingen schitterende blijken waren van Goddelijke goedgunstigheid ³⁾. Sterker nog verklaart hij in zijn commentaar op Exodus, dat “alle kunsten uit God vloeien en te eeren zijn als Goddelijke uitvindingen ⁴⁾. Ook deze schatten van het natuurlijk leven zijn, zoo ge Calvijn hoort, in hun oorsprong aan den Heiligen Geest dank te weten ⁵⁾. In alle artes liberales moet, zoo in de gewichtige als min gewichtige, Gods lof en glorie worden verheerlijkt ⁶⁾. Meer nog, de kunsten zijn ons als troost bij dezen lagen stand onzes levens geschonken. Ze reageeren tegen het ingezonkene van leven en natuur ⁷⁾. Toen zijn collega Cop te Genève tegen de kunst als zoodanig ging woeden, nam Calvijn zelfs opzettelijk zijne maatregelen om, gelijk hij zelf schrijft, “dezen onzinnigen mensch tot gezonder zin en rede terug te brengen” ⁸⁾. Het domme vooroordeel, alsof het gebod tegen den beeldendienst de beeldhouwkunst verbood, noemt Calvijn de moeite der wederlegging niet eens waard ⁹⁾. Van de 148 muziek roemt hij, dat ze een wondere, ongelooflijke kracht bezit, om de harten te roeren en de neigingen en zeden te buiten en te verzachten ¹⁰⁾. Onder de schatten des levens, die God ons schonk, om ons te ontspannen en te doen genieten, staat ze zijns inziens bovenaan. En zelfs waar de kunst lager afdaalt en enkel bedoelt den grooten hoop te vermaken, snijdt hij ze zoo weinig af, dat hij verklaart, hoe men dit soort zinvermaak niet aan het volk moest onthouden ¹¹⁾. Dit samenvattende, mag men dus zeggen, dat Calvijn de kunst in al haar vertakkingen eerde als een gave Gods, nader als een gave van den Heiligen Geest; dat hij de machtige uitwerking der kunst op het gemoedsleven ten volle begreep; dat hij haar bestemming zag in het verheerlijken van God die ze ons schonk, in de veredeling des levens, in het ons schenken van hooger genot, en zelfs van gewoon vermaak; en dat hij, wel verre van in haar slechts een nabootsing der natuur te zien, haar de roeping toeschreef, om ons een hoogere werkelijkheid te ontsluiten dan deze zondige en ingezonken wereld ons bood.

Hence the question must be differently stated. And this brings us to our second point. The question is not whether Calvinism produced what, with its higher view-point it was no longer allowed to create, viz., a general art -style of its own, but what interpretation of the nature of art /tows from its principle. In other words, is there in the life- and world-view of Calvinism a place for art, and if so, what place ? Is its principle opposed to art, or, if judged by the standards of the Calvinistic principle, would a world without art loose one of its ideal spheres? I do not speak now of the abuse, but simply of the use of art. In every domain, life is bound to respect the dimensions of this domain. 14 Encroachment on the domain of others is always unlawful ; and our human life will only then attain its nobler harmony when all its functions cooperate in just proportion to our general development, The logic of the mind may not scorn the feelings of the heart, nor should the love of the beautiful silence the voice of conscience. However holy Religion may be, it must keep within its own bounds, lest, in crossing its lines, it degenerate into superstition, insanity or fanaticism. Hypertrophy of the head, accompanied by atrophy of the heart, results in a sickly development, and, in the same way, the too exuberant passion for art which laughs at the whispering of conscience, must end in an unlovely discord quite different from what the Greeks exalted in their Mokagathos. The fact, for instance, that Calvinism arrayed itself against all unholy play with woman's honor, and stigmatized every form of immoral artistic enjoyment as a degradation, lies therefore outside our scope. All this properly denounces the abuse, while it carries no weight whatever with the question of the lawful use. And that the lawful use of art was not opposed, but encouraged and even recommended, by Calvin himself, his own words readily prove. When the Scripture mentions the first appearance of art, in the tents of Jubal, who invented the harp and organ, Calvin emphatically reminds us that this passage treats of '-excellent gifts of the Holy Spirit." He declares that in the artistic instinct God had enriched Jubal and his posterity with rare endowments. And he frankly states that these inventive powers of art prove most evident testimonies of the Divine bounty. More emphatically still, he declares, in his commentaries on Exodus, that "all the arts come from God and are to be respected as Divine inventions." According to Calvin, these precious things of the natural life we owe originally to the Holy Ghost. In all Liberal Arts, in the most as well as in the least important, the praise and glory of 15 God are to be enhanced. The arts, says he, have been given us for our comfort, in this our depressed estate of life. They react against the corruption of life and nature by the curse. When his colleague, Prof. Cop, at Geneva, took up arms against art, Calvin purposely instituted measures, by which, as he writes, to restore this foolish man to sounder sense and reason. The blind prejudice against Sculpture, on the ground of the Second Commandment, Calvin declares unworthy of refutation. He exults in Music as a marvellous power to move hearts and to ennoble tendencies and morals. Among the excellent favors of God for our recreation and enjoyment, it occupies in his mind the highest rank. And even when art condescends to become the instrument of mere entertainment to the masses, he asserts that this sort of pleasure should not lie denied them. In view of all this we may say, that Calvin esteemed art, in all its ramifications, as a gift of God, or, more especially, as a gift of the Holy Ghost; that he fully grasped the profound effects worked by art upon the life of the emotions; that he appreciated the end for which art has been given, vis., that by it we might glorify God, and ennoble human life, and drink at the fountain of higher pleasures, yea even of common sport; and finally, that so far from considering art as a mere imitation of nature, he attributed to it the noble vocation of disclosing to man a higher reality than was offered to us by this sinful and corrupted world.

Hence the question must be differently stated. And this brings us to our second point. The question is not whether Calvinism produced what, with its higher view-point, it was no longer allowed to create, viz., a general art-style of its own, but what interpretation of the nature of art flows from its principle. In other words, is there in the life- and world-view of Calvinism a place for art, and if so, what place? Is its principle opposed to art, or, if judged by the standards of the Calvinistic principle, would a world without art lose one of its ideal spheres? I do not speak now of the abuse, but simply of the use of art. In every domain, life is bound to respect the dimensions of this domain. Encroachment on the domain of others is always unlawful; and our human life will only then attain its nobler harmony when all its functions cooperate in just proportion to our general development. The logic of the mind may not scorn the feelings of the heart, nor should the love of the beautiful silence the voice of conscience. However holy Religion may be. it must keep within its own bounds, lest, in crossing its lines. it degenerate into superstition, insanity or fanaticism. And, in the same way, the too exuberant passion for 205 art which laughs at the whispering of conscience, must end in an unlovely discord quite different from what the Greeks exalted in their kalokagathos. The fact, for instance, that Calvinism arrayed itself against ail unholy play with woman’s honor, and stigmatized every form of immoral artistic enjoyment as a degradation, lies therefore outside our scope. All this properly denounces the abuse, while it carries no weight whatever with the question of the lawful use. And that the lawful use of art was not opposed, but encouraged and even recommended, by Calvin himself, his own words readily prove. When the Scripture mentions the first appearance of art, in the tents of Jubal, who invented the harp and organ, Calvin emphatically reminds us that this passage treats of “excellent gifts of the Holy Spirit.” He declares that in the artistic instinct God had enriched Jubal and his posterity with rare endowments. And he frankly states that these inventive powers of art prove most evident testimonies of the Divine bounty. More emphatically still, he declares, in his commentaries on Exodus, that “all the arts come from God and are to be respected as Divine inventions.” According to Calvin, these precious things of the natural life we owe originally to the Holy Ghost. In ail Liberal Arts, in the most as well as in the least important, the praise and glory of God are to be enhanced. The arts, says he, have been given us for our comfort, in this our depressed estate of life. They react against the corruption of life and nature by the curse. When his colleague, Prof. Cop, at Geneva, took up arms against art, Calvin purposely 206 instituted measures, by which, as he writes, to restore this foolish man to sounder sense and reason. The blind prejudice against Sculpture, on the ground of the Second Commandment, Calvin declares unworthy of refutation. He exults in Music as a marvelous power to move hearts and to ennoble tendencies and morals. Among the excellent favors of God for our recreation and enjoyment, it occupies in his mind the highest rank. And even when art condescends to become the instrument of mere entertainment to the masses, he asserts that this sort of pleasure should not be denied them. In view of all this we may say that Calvin esteemed art, in all its ramifications, as a gift of God, or, more especially. as a gift of the Holy Ghost; that he fully grasped the profound effects worked by art upon the life of the emotions; that he appreciated the end for which art has been given, viz., that by it we might glorify God, and ennoble human life, and drink at the fountain of higher pleasures, yea even of common sport; and finally. that so far from considering art as a mere imitation of nature, he attributed to it the noble vocation of disclosing to man a higher reality than was offered to us by this sinful and corrupted world.

Por isso, a questão deve ser formulada de modo diferente. E isso nos conduz ao nosso segundo ponto. A questão não é se o Calvinismo com seu ponto de vista superior produziu o que não era mais permitido criar, a saber, um estilo de arte geral próprio dele, mas qual interpretação sobre a natureza da arte flui de seu princípio. Em outras palavras, há na biocosmovisão do Calvinismo um lugar para a arte, e se sim, qual lugar? Seu princípio é oposto a arte, ou, se julgado pelos padrões do princípio calvinista, um mundo sem arte perderia uma de suas esferas ideais? Eu não falarei agora do abuso, mas simplesmente do uso da arte. Em cada campo, a vida é obrigada a respeitar as dimensões desse campo. A transgressão dos domínios dos outros é sempre ilegal; e nossa vida humana atingirá sua mais nobre harmonia somente quando todas as suas funções cooperarem na justa proporção para nosso desenvolvimento geral. A lógica da mente não pode desprezar os sentimentos do coração, nem o amor pela beleza deveria silenciar a voz da consciência. Por mais santa que a Religião possa ser, ela deve guardar-se dentro de seus próprios limites, para que não se degenere em superstição, insanidade ou fanatismo ao atravessar suas linhas. E, do mesmo modo, a tão exuberante paixão pela arte que despreza o sussurro da consciência, deve resultar num desacordo desagradável completamente diferente do que os gregos exaltavam em seus kalokagathos.91

O fato, por exemplo, de que o Calvinismo se dispôs contra toda diversão ímpia com a honra da mulher, e estigmatizou toda forma de prazer artístico imoral como uma degradação, encontra-se portanto fora de nosso alcance. Tudo isto denuncia adequadamente o abuso, embora não tenha qualquer peso quanto a questão do uso legítimo. E o próprio Calvino não se opôs ao uso legítimo da arte, mas encorajou e até mesmo recomendou, como suas próprias palavras prontamente provam. Quando a Escritura menciona a primeira aparição da arte nas tendas de Jubal, que inventou a harpa e o órgão, Calvino recorda-nos enfaticamente que esta passagem trata dos “excelentes dons do Espírito Santo”. Ele declara que, quanto ao instinto artístico, Deus tinha enriquecido Jubal e sua posteridade com raros dons naturais. E, abertamente, declara que esses poderes inventivos da arte são o mais evidente testemunho do favor divino. Ele declara mais enfaticamente ainda, em seu comentário sobre Êxodo, que “todas as artes vêm de Deus e devem ser consideradas como invenções divinas”.

Segundo Calvino, nós devemos estas coisas preciosas da vida natural originalmente ao Espírito Santo. Em todas as Artes Liberais, tanto nas mais como nas menos importantes, o louvor e a glória de Deus devem ser acentuadas. As artes, diz ele, foram dadas para nosso conforto, nesse nosso estado deprimido de vida. Elas reagem contra a corrupção da vida e da natureza pela maldição. Quando seu colega, o Prof. Cop, levantou armas em Genebra contra a arte, Calvino propositadamente instituiu medidas, como ele escreve, para restaurar esse homem louco ao bom senso e a razão. Calvino declara ser indigno de refutação o preconceito cego contra a escultura com base no Segundo Mandamento. Ele exalta a música como um poder maravilhoso para comover corações e para dignificar tendências e princípios morais. Entre os excelentes favores de Deus para nossa recreação e prazer, ela ocupa em sua mente o posto mais alto. E mesmo quando a arte se rebaixa para tornar-se o instrumento de mero entretenimento para o povo, afirma que este tipo de prazer não lhe deveria ser negado.

Em vista de tudo isto, podemos dizer que Calvino apreciava a arte em todas as suas ramificações como um dom de Deus, ou mais especialmente, como um dom do Espírito Santo; que ele entendeu plenamente os profundos efeitos produzidos pela arte sobre a vida das emoções; que ele apreciava o fim pelo qual a arte fora dada, a saber, que por ela poderíamos glorificar a Deus, dignificar a vida humana, e beber na mais alta fonte de prazeres, sim até mesmo no esporte comum; e, finalmente, que longe considerar a arte como simples imitação da natureza, ele lhe atribuiu a nobre vocação de desvendar para o homem uma realidade mais alta do que foi oferecida a nós pelo mundo pecaminoso e corrupto.

Вопрос следует сформулировать иначе. И эта формулировка приводит нас ко второму пункту. Вопрос не в том, произвел ли кальвинизм то, что с его, более высокой точки зрения ему больше не дозволялось делать, то есть создать общий художественный стиль, а в том, какое толкование искусства вытекает из его принципов. Другими словами, есть ли в кальвинистском взгляде на мир и на жизнь место для искусства, и если есть, то какое оно? Противостоит ли его принцип искусству, или, по меркам кальвинистского принципа, мир без искусства потерял бы одну из своих идеальных сфер? Я говорю сейчас не о злоупотреблении искусством, а просто об использовании искусства. В каждой отдельной сфере нужно учитывать своеобразие этой сферы. Вторжение в иные сферы незаконно; и наша человеческая жизнь только тогда достигнет благородной гармонии, когда все ее функции будут в строгом соответствии взаимодействовать с нашим общим развитием. Логика разума не должна презирать чувств сердца, любовь к прекрасному — заглушать голос совести. Какой бы святой ни была религия, она должна находиться в своих собственных рамках, чтобы, перейдя их, не выродиться в суеверие, безумие или фанатизм. Точно так же слишком сильная страсть к искусству, презирающая голос совести, окончится весьма неприятным раздором, противоположным тому, что греки называли kalokagathos («любовь к добру» и «любовь к красоте» (греч.)). Кальвинизм возражал против нездоровой и унизительной игры с честью женщины и осудил как упадок всякую форму безнравственного увеселения, но мы сейчас говорим не об этом. Все это — злоупотребления, никак не связанные с законным употреблением искусства. А то, что это законное употребление не отвергал, но поощрял и даже рекомендовал сам Кальвин, легко доказывают его собственные слова. Когда Писание упоминает о первом появлении искусства в шатрах Иувала, который изобрел арфу и свирель, Кальвин решительно напоминает нам, что речь идет о «превосходных дарах Святого Духа». Да, на его взгляд, Бог наделил Иувала и его потомков редким дарованием, и эта творческая сила — очевидное доказательство божественной щедрости. Еще выразительнее он говорит в комментарии к Книге Исход, что «всякое искусство от Бога и его дoлжно почитать как божественное изобретение». Согласно Кальвину, этими ценностями природной жизни мы обязаны в первую очередь Святому Духу. Все виды искусства — и наиболее, и наименее важные — должны постоянно возносить хвалу и славу Богу. Искусство, полагает Кальвин, дано нам для утешения в этой нелегкой жизни. Оно противостоит разладу, вызванному грехопадением. Когда его женевский соратник, профессор Коп поднял руку на искусство, Кальвин немедленно приказал, по его собственным словам, вернуть этого глупого человека к здравому смыслу и разуму. Слепое предубеждение против скульптуры на основании второй заповеди Кальвин считает недостойным спора. Он превозносит чудесную способность музыки трогать сердца и облагораживать нравы. Среди превосходных даров Божиих, данных нам для отдыха и увеселения, музыка занимает, по его мнению, самое высокое место. Даже если искусство нисходит до того, что просто веселит простой люд, считает он, то и этот вид удовольствия не следует отвергать. Словом, можно сказать, что Кальвин ценил искусство во всех его разновидностях как дар Божий, или, конкретней, как дар Святого Духа. Он полностью осознавал, какое глубокое влияние оказывает искусство на эмоциональную жизнь, и высоко ценил ту цель, ради которой оно даровано, — чтобы через него мы славили Бога, облагораживали нашу жизнь и пили из источника высших наслаждений. Наконец, не считая искусство простым подражанием природе, он приписывал ему благородное призвание — раскрывать перед человеком более высокую реальность, чем та, которую преподносит нам этот греховный, испорченный мир.

Sprak ons hierin nu niets toe, dan de persoonlijke opvatting en smaak van Calvijn, zoo zou dit getuigenis nog geen waarde voor het Calvinisme als zoodanig hebben. Maar anders komt het natuurlijk te staan, zoo men er op let, hoe Calvijn zelf juist niet artistiek was aangelegd, en hoe aldus blijkt dat deze korte aesthetiek van Calvijn, als we ons zoo mogen uitdrukken, rechtstreeks voortvloeide uit zijn beginsel en in de Calvinistische levens- en wereldbeschouwing haar noodzakelijke plaats vindt. Dat dit nu metterdaad zoo is, valt niet moeilijk aan te toonen. Beginnen we, om het vraagstuk terstond in het hart aan te vatten, met Calvijns laatste verklaring. De kunst ons een hoogere werkelijkheid openbarend, dan deze ingezonken wereld ons biedt. Ook gij kent den strijd telkens opnieuw op kunstgebied uitgestreden, of de kunst enkel nabootsing der natuur moet zijn, dan wel boven de natuur moet uitgaan. Druiven zoo juist geschilderd, dat de vogelen door den 149 schijn misleid er in pikken wilden, scheen voor de Socratische school der µίµήσις of natuurnabootsing, het hoogste ideaal. Hierin nu lag deze, maar al te vaak door de idealisten vergeten waarheid, dat de vormen en verhoudingen die de natuur ons toont, de grondvormen en verhoudingen voor alle waarachtige realiteit zijn en blijven moeten, en dat een kunst die niet de natuur afziet en beluistert, maar willekeurig boven haar zweven wil, verloopt in spel der phantasie. Maar omgekeerd moet alle ideëele kunstopvatting tegenover de bloot empirische in het gelijk worden gesteld, waar de empirische met het nadoen van de natuur haar taak als voltooid beschouwt. Dan toch begaat men op kunstgebied dezelfde fout, waaraan de man op wetenschappelijk gebied schuldig staat, die rust bij de waarneming, in zich opneming en geordende teruggeving van de feiten. En gelijk ware wetenschap uit de verschijnselen opklimt tot de in hen wonende orde, om met de kennis dier orde gewapend, edeler dieren, edeler bloemen, edeler vruchten te kweeken, die boven hetgeen de natuur van zelve voortbrengt, uitsteken, zoo ook is het de roeping der kunst, niet enkel om het zienbare en hoorbare waar te nemen, in zich op te nemen en weer te geven, maar veel meer om in die verschijnselen de orde van het schoon te ontdekken, en met die hoogere kennis gewapend, een schoon voort te brengen, dat boven het schoon der natuur uitgaat. Juist dus wat Calvijn beweerde, dat de kunsten gaven ten toon spreiden, die God ter onzer beschikking stelde, nu tengevolge der zonde, het wezenlijk schoon, zooals het zijn moest, ons ontnomen was.

Now if it implied nothing beyond the personal interpretation of Calvin, this testimony would of course have no conclusive value for Calvinism in general. But when we observe that Calvin himself was not gifted with personal artistic talents, and that therefore he must have derived this brief system of Aesthetics directly from his principle, he may be credited with having expounded the Calvinistic consideration of art as such. And it is not difficult to show that such is the case. To go direct to the heart of the cpiestion, we begin with Calvin's last saying, viz., that art reveals 16 to us a higher reality than is offered by this sinful world. You are familiar with the question, so often debated in art circles, whether art should imitate nature or should transcend it. Grapes were painted with such accuracy that birds were deceived by their appearance and tried to eat them. And this imitation of nature seemed the highest ideal to the Socratic school. Herein lies the truth, all too often forgotten by idealists, that the forms and relations exhibited by nature are and ever must remain the fundamental forms and relations of all actual reality, and an art which does not watch the forms and motions of nature nor listen to its sounds, but arbitrarily likes to hover over it, deteriorates into a wild play of fantasy. On the other hand all idealistic interpretation of art should be justified in opposition to the purely empirical, as often as the empirical confines its task to the mere imitation of nature. For then the same mistake is committed in art so often committed by scientists when they confine their scientific task to the mere observation, computation and accurate report of facts. And even as science has to ascend from the phenomena to the investigation of their inherent order, to the end that man, enriched by the knowledge of this order, may propagate nobler species oi animals, flowers and fruits, than nature, herself, could produce, so also it is the vocation of art, not merely to observe every thing visible and audible, and to apprehend it, and reproduce it artistically, but much more to discover in those natural forms the order of the beautiful, and, enriched by this higher knowledge, to produce a beautiful world that transcends the beautiful of nature. And this is what Calvin asserted ; viz., that the arts exhibit gifts which God has placed at our disposal, now that, as the sad consequence of sin, the real beautiful has fled from us.

Now if this implied nothing beyond the personal interpretation of Calvin, his testimony would of course have no conclusive value for Calvinism in general. But when we observe that Calvin himself was not artistically developed, and that therefore he must have derived this brief system of Aesthetics from his principles, he may be credited with having expounded the Calvinistic consideration of art as such. To go direct to the heart of the question, 207 we begin with Calvin’s last saying, viz., that art reveals to us a higher reality than is offered by this sinful world. You are familiar with the question, already mentioned, whether art should imitate nature or should transcend it. In Greece grapes were painted with such accuracy that birds were deceived by their appearance and tried to eat them. And this imitation of nature seemed the highest ideal to the Socratic school. Herein lies the truth, all too often forgotten by idealists, that the forms and relations exhibited by nature are and ever must remain the fundamental forms and relations of all actual reality, and an art which does not watch the forms and motions of nature nor listen to its sounds, but arbitrarily likes to hover over it, deteriorates into a wild play of fantasy. But on the other hand, all idealistic interpretation of art should be justified in opposition to the purely empirical, as often as the empirical confines its task to mere imitation. For then the same mistake is committed in art so often committed by scientists when they confine their scientific task to the mere observation, computation and accurate report of facts. For even as science has to ascend from the phenomena to the investigation of their inherent order, to the end that man, enriched by the knowledge of this order, may propagate nobler species of animals, flowers and fruits, than nature, herself, could produce, so also it is the vocation of art, not merely to observe everything visible and audible, to apprehend it, and reproduce it artistically, but much more to discover in those natural forms the order of the beautiful, and, enriched by this higher knowledge, to produce a beautiful 208 world that transcends the beautiful of nature. And this is what Calvin asserted: viz., that the arts exhibit gifts which God has placed at our disposal, now that, as the sad consequence of sin, the real beautiful has fled from us.

Ora, se isso implicava em nada mais que a interpretação pessoal de Calvino, certamente seu testemunho não teria valor conclusivo para o Calvinismo em geral. Mas quando observamos que o próprio Calvino não era artisticamente desenvolvido, e que por isso ele deve ter inferido seu breve sistema de Estética92 de seus princípios, ele pode ser reconhecido como tendo exposto a consideração calvinista sobre a arte como tal. Para ir direto ao coração da questão, comecemos com a última declaração de Calvino, a saber, que a arte revela para nós uma realidade mais alta do que é oferecida por este mundo pecaminoso.

Vocês estão familiarizados com a questão, já mencionada, se a arte deveria imitar a natureza ou se deveria transcendê-la. Na Grécia uvas eram pintadas com tal precisão que os pássaros eram iludidos por sua aparência e tentavam comê-las. E esta imitação da natureza parece ter sido o ideal maior da escola Socrática. Aqui, encontra-se a verdade muitas vezes esquecida pelos idealistas, de que as formas e relações exibidas pela natureza são e sempre devem ser as formas e relações fundamentais de toda realidade atual, e uma arte que não observa as formas e movimentos da natureza nem escuta seus sons, mas arbitrariamente gosta de flutuar acima dela, se degenera num bárbaro jogo de fantasia.

Mas por outro lado, toda interpretação idealista da arte deveria ser justificada em oposição à puramente empírica, sempre que a empírica confina sua tarefa a mera imitação. Por isso, muitas vezes é cometido na arte o mesmo equívoco cometido pelos cientistas quando limitam sua tarefa científica à mera observação, computação e relatório acurado dos fatos. Pois do mesmo modo como a ciência deve subir dos fenômenos para a investigação de sua ordem inerente, a fim de que o homem, enriquecido pelo conhecimento desta ordem, possa reproduzir espécies de animais, flores e frutos mais nobres do que a própria natureza poderia produzir, assim a vocação da arte é, não simplesmente observar cada coisa visível e audível, a fim de apreendê-la e reproduzi-la artisticamente, mas muito mais, descobrir naquelas formas naturais a ordem da beleza, e enriquecido por este conhecimento superior, produzir uma beleza mundial que transcende a beleza da natureza.

Isto é o que Calvino afirmou: a saber, que as artes exibem dons que Deus colocou à nossa disposição, agora que a verdadeira beleza fugiu de nós como triste conseqüência do pecado, a verdadeira beleza fugiu de nós.

Если эта позиция Кальвина — просто его личное мнение, то она, конечно, не имеет решающего значения для кальвинизма в целом. Но мы знаем, что Кальвин в искусстве не разбирался, и должен был вывести эту краткую систему эстетики² из своих принципов. Следовательно, можно полагать, что он изложил, по существу, кальвинистское понимание искусства. Чтобы подойти непосредственно к сути, мы начнем с последнего его высказывания, а именно — что искусство открывает для нас более высокую реальность, чем та, которую предлагает этот греховный мир. Мы уже упоминали о вопросе, должно ли искусство подражать природе или превосходить ее? В Греции виноградные гроздья вырисовывали столь аккуратно, что птицы, обманутые их видом, пытались клевать их. Подражание природе казалось высшим идеалом для школы Сократа. Идеалисты часто забывают, что формы и отношения, представленные в природе, остаются основными формами и отношениями всякой действительности; и если искусство не следит за ними, не внимает звукам природы, но предпочитает парить над ней, оно вырождается в дикую игру воображения. В то же время идеалистическое толкование искусства следует предпочитать чисто эмпирическому, когда эмпирическое толкование ограничивает свою задачу простым подражанием. В этом случае допускается та же самая ошибка, которую часто допускают ученые, ограничивая свою научную задачу чистым наблюдением, вычислениями и скрупулезным отчетом о фактах. Наука должна подняться от явлений до исследования присущего им порядка, чтобы человек, его познавший, разводил лучшие виды животных, цветов или фруктов, чем смогла создать сама природа. Точно так же призвание искусства — не в простом наблюдении всего видимого и слышимого, чтобы потом воспроизвести его в художественной форме, но в том, чтобы, открыв в природных формах порядок прекрасного и обогатившись этим высшим знанием, создать прекрасный мир, который превосходил бы красоту природы. Это и утверждал Кальвин, когда говорил, что искусства — дары, которые Бог дал нам, когда подлинная красота ушла от нас после грехопадения.

Uw beslissing ten deze nu hangt geheel af van uw opvatting van de wereld. Ziet ge in de wereld het absoluut geode, dan is er niet hooger, en blijft voor de kunst niet anders over dan dit goede na te bootsen, Erkent ge daarentegen, dat de wereld eens schoon was, nu door den vloek ontredderd wierd, maar eens door de eindcatastrophe in een heerlijkheid zal ingaan, die nog hooger staat dan het oorspronkelijk paradijsschoon, dan heeft de kunst de mystieke taak, om door het heimwee naar het verloren schoon tot de vooruitgenieting der komende heerlijkheid op te klimmen. Welnu, die laatste is metterdaad de Calvinistische belijdenis. Scherper dan de andere 150 richtingen heeft ze het diep bederf der zonde erkend; om dit bederf meetbaar te maken, hoog de paradijsnatuur in de oorspronkelijke gerechtigheid gesteld; en uit dit bederf een verlossing geprofeteerd, die eenmaal op de volle genieting van Gods heerlijkheid zou uitloopen. En op dat standpunt nu kon de kunst niet anders zijn dan een gave van den Heiligen Geest aan ons geslacht, om ons in en achter het ingezonken leven een rijken, heerlijken achtergrond te doen ontdekken, die heenwijst naar een realiteit, waarin eens alle gevolg van zonde en vloek zal overwonnen zijn. Staande bij den bouwval van de eens zoo wonderschoone schepping, toont dan de kunst ons én de lijnen van het oorspronkelijk bestek, én wat de Opperste Kunstenaar en Bouwmeester ons eenmaal nieuw uit dien bouwval zal scheppen.

Your decision here depends entirely upon your interpretation of the world. If you are considering the world as the realisation of the absolute good, then there is none higher, and art can have no other voca- 17 tion than to copy nature. If, as the pantheist teaches, the world proceed, by slow processes, from the incomplete to perfection, then art becomes the prophecy of a higher phase of life to come. But if you confess that the world was once beautiful, but by the curse has become undone, and by a final catastrophy is to pass to its full state of glory, excelling even the beautiful of paradise, then art has the mystical task of reminding us in its productions of the beautiful that was lost and of anticipating in its coming lustre. Now this last-mentioned instance is the Calvinistic confession. It realized, more clearly than Rome, the hideous, corrupting influences of sin; this led to a higher estimation of the nature of paradise in the beaut}- of original righteousness, and guided by this enchanting remembrance. Calvinism prophesied a redemption of outward nature also, to be realized in the reign of celestial glory. From this standpoint, Calvinism honored art as a gift of the holy Ghost and as a consolation in our present life, enabling us to discover in and behind this sinful life a richer and more glorious background. Standing by the ruins of this once so wonderfully beautiful creation, art points out to the Calvinist both the still visible lines of the original plan, and what is even more, the splendid restoration by which the Supreme Artist and Master-Builder will one day renew and enhance even the beauty of His original creation.

Your decision here depends entirely upon your interpretation of the world. If you are considering the world as the realization of the absolute good, then there is none higher, and art can have no other vocation than to copy nature. If, as the pantheist teaches, the world proceeds, by slow processes, from the incomplete to perfection, then art becomes the prophecy of a further phase of life to come. But if you confess that the world once was beautiful, but by the curse has become undone, and by a final catastrophe is to pass to its full state of glory, excelling even the beautiful of paradise, then art has the mystical task of reminding us in its productions of the beautiful that was lost and of anticipating its perfect coming luster. Now this last-mentioned instance is the Calvinistic confession. It realized, more clearly than Rome, the hideous, corrupting influences of sin; this led to a higher estimation of the nature of paradise in the beauty of original righteousness; and guided by this enchanting remembrance, Calvinism prophesied a redemption of outward nature also, to be realized in the reign of celestial glory. From this standpoint, Calvinism honored art as a gift of the Holy Ghost and as a consolation in our present life, enabling us to discover in and behind this sinful life a richer and more glorious background. Standing by the ruins of this once so wonderfully beautiful creation, art points out to the Calvinist both the still visible 209 lines of the original plan, and what is even more, the splendid restoration by which the Supreme Artist and Master-Builder will one day renew and enhance even the beauty of His original creation.

Sua decisão aqui depende inteiramente de sua interpretação do mundo. Se vocês consideram o mundo como a realização do bem absoluto, então não há nada superior, e a arte não pode ter outra vocação senão copiar a natureza. Se, como o panteísta ensina, o mundo segue da imperfeição para a perfeição por um processo lento, então a arte torna-se a profecia de uma fase adicional da vida por vir. Porém, se vocês confessam que o mundo outrora foi belo, mas que pela maldição tornou-se desfeito e por uma catástrofe final deve passar para seu pleno estado de glória, superando até mesmo a beleza do paraíso, então a arte tem a tarefa mística de lembrar-nos, em suas produções, da beleza que foi perdida e de antecipar seu perfeito brilho vindouro. Este último caso mencionado é a confissão calvinista. O Calvinismo compreendeu, mais claramente do que Roma, a influência horrenda e corruptora do pecado; isto o levou a maior apreciação da natureza do paraíso na beleza da justiça original; e guiado por esta encantadora recordação o Calvinismo também profetizou uma redenção da natureza exterior, a ser realizada no reino da glória celestial. A partir deste ponto de vista, o Calvinismo honrou a arte como um dom do Espírito Santo e como uma consolação em nossa vida atual, habilitando-nos a descobrir em e atrás desta vida pecaminosa um pano de fundo mais rico e mais glorioso. Considerando as ruínas desta criação outrora tão maravilhosamente bela, para o calvinista a arte chama a atenção tanto para as linhas do plano original ainda visíveis quanto, o que é ainda melhor, para a esplêndida restauração pela qual o Supremo Artista e Construtor Mestre um dia renovará e até mesmo intensificará a beleza de sua criação original.

Наше решение в данном случае полностью зависит от нашего понимания мира. Если мы рассматриваем мир как осуществление абсолютного блага, тогда нет ничего выше природы, и искусство должно ее копировать. Если, как учат пантеисты, мир медленно развивается от несовершенства к совершенству, искусство становится пророчеством грядущей фазы жизни. Если же вы исповедуете, что мир некогда был прекрасен, а потом пал, и через завершающий катаклизм должен снова обрести полноту славы, превосходящую красоту рая, тогда перед искусством стоит мистическая задача — напоминать нам об утраченной красоте и об ожидании совершенства. Вот это и есть кальвинистское исповедание. Кальвинисты яснее католиков ощущают мерзкий привкус греха, а потому выше ценят красоту первоначальной праведности. Ведомый этим райским воспоминанием, кальвинизм пророчествует об искуплении внешней природы, которое должно осуществиться в Царстве небесной славы. С этой точки зрения он почитает искусство как дар Святого Духа и утешение в настоящей жизни, дающее нам возможность открыть для себя за пределами падшего мира что-то более прекрасное и высокое. Стоя у развалин некогда дивного творения, искусство указывает кальвинисту и на все еще видимые черты первоначального плана, и на то великолепие, посредством которого Верховный Художник и Строитель однажды обновит и даже усилит красоту Своего первоначального творения.

En blijkt alzoo op dit hoofdpunt Calvijns opvatting in juiste overeenstemming met het Calvinistisch belijden te zijn, geheel hetzelfde geldt van wat ik straks in de eerste plaats noemde. Is en blijft Gods Souvereiniteit het uitgangspunt voor geheel de richting van het Calvinisme, dan kan kunst niet uit den Booze zijn, want Satan schept niets; al wat hij vermag is goede gaven Gods misbruiken. En ook kan dan de kunst evenmin uit den mensch zelf zijn, want als creatuur kan de mensch met niets anders werken, dan met de krachten en gaven, die God hem verleent. Is en blijft God Souverein, dan kan de kunst niet anders tooveren dan naar de ordinantiën door God haar gesteld, toen Hij zelf als Opperste Kunstenaar deze wereld tot aanzijn riep. En ook, is en blijft God Souverein, dan deelt Hij ook deze gaven uit aan wie Hij wil, eerst zelfs aan Kaïns, en niet aan Abel’s geslacht, niet alsof de kunst Kaïnitisch ware, maar opdat wie de hoogste gaven verzondigd had, althans in de mindere gaven der kunst, gelijk Calvijn het zoo schoon uitdrukt, een “blijk zou bezitten van zijn goeddadigheid.” Dat nu dit kunnen, dit kunstvermogen, in de menschelijke natuur bestaan kan, danken we aan onze schepping naar den beelde Gods. In de reëele wereld schept God alles, daarin is alleen Zijns het kunnen, en deswege blijft Hij de Opperste Kunstenaar. Hij als God is alleen de Oorspronkelijke, wij zijn niets dan dragers van zijn beeld. Ons kunnen, óns vermogen, óns nascheppen van het 151 scheppen Gods, kan daarom alleen in een schijnrealiteit bestaan, en alleen in dien zin is het, dat de mensch op kunstgebied, ook op zijn manier als schepper optreedt, om in de bouwkunst zich een kosmos, in de beeldhouwkunst de vormen, in de schilderkunst het door lijnen tint bezielde leven, in de toonkunst het mystieke, in de dichtkunst het bewuste leven voor oog en oor te tooveren, door God daartoe aangedreven en van God daartoe bekwaamd. En dit alles rust op de erkentenis, dat het schoon niet onze inbeelding, niet onze subjectieve gewaarwording is, maar dat het Schoone objectief bestaat, en uitdrukking is van die Goddelijke volkomenheid, die in heel de schepping uitkwam, toen God zag „dat het alles goed was,” opdat zijn welbehagen zich daarin verlustigen zou. Denk u alle menschenoog gesloten en alle menschenoor toegestopt, dan nog blijft het schoone en God ziet het hoort het, want niet alleen zijne „eeuwige kracht,” maar ook zijn „Goddelijkheid” wordt van de schepping af in zijne schepselen verstaan en doorzien, en die „Goddelijkheid” is juist de zuivere harmonie, de zuivere evenredigheid van het schoone. Dat merken we ook aan ons zelf, want is in ons een kunstoog en dáárom kunstvermogen, dan moet wel het absolute kunstoog in God zelven zijn, wijl in ons niets zijn kan dan wat we in den beelde Gods uit Hem ontvingen. Dat weten we evenzoo uit de schepping die ons omringt, uit het firmament, dat zich over ons welft, uit de weelde der natuur om ons heen, uit de vormenweelde in mensch en dier, uit het geklots van den stroom en uit den zang van den nachtegaal, want al dit schoon hoe kan het geschapen zijn anders dan door Een die zelf het schoon in zijn Wezen draagt, en door zijn Goddelijke deugden het voortbracht? En zoo ziet ge, hoe uit de erkentenis van de souvereiniteit Gods, in verband met onze schepping naar den beelde Gods, vanzelf en natuurlijk die hooge opvatting van den oorsprong, het wezen en de roeping der kunst voortvloeit, die we in Calvijns uitspraak vonden, en die nog u toespreekt in den heiligen kunstzin van uw hart. De wereld der tonen, de wereld der vormen, de wereld der kleuren en de wereld der dichterlijke ideeën, ze kunnen niet anders dan uit God zijn, en alleen wie Zijn beelddrager is, verstaat ze en kan ze genieten.152

If thus, on this principal point, Calvin's personal interpretation agrees entirely with the Calvinistic confession, the same applies to the next point in question. If the Sovereignty of God is and remains, for Calvinism, its unchangeable point of departure, then art cannot originate from the Evil One; for Satan is destitute of every creative power. All he can do is to abuse the good gifts of God. Neither can art originate with man, for, being a creature himself, man cannot but employ the powers and gifts, put by God at his disposal. If God is and remains Sovereign, then art can work no enchantment except in keeping 18 with the ordinances which God ordained for the beautiful, when He, as the Supreme Artist, called this world into existence. And, further, if God is and remains Sovereign, then he also imparts these artistic gifts to whom He will, first even to Cain's, and not to Abel's posterity; not as if art were Cainitic, but in order that he who has sinned away the highest gifts, should at least, as Calvin so beautifully says, in the lesser gifts of art have some testimony of the Divine bounty. That artistic ability, that art-capacity, as such, can have room in buman uature. we owe to our creation after the image of God. In the real world, God is Creator of everything ; the power of producing new things is His alone, and therefore He always continues to be the creative artist. As God, He alone is the original One, we are only the bearers of His Image. Our capacity to create after Him and after what He created, can only consist in the unreal creations of art. So. we, in our fashion, may imitate God's handiwork, and feel impelled by God Himself to create a kind of cosmos in our architectural monumeut;to embellish nature's forms, in Sculpture; to reproduce life, animated by lines and tints, in our painting : to transfuse the mystical spheres in our Music and in our poetry. And all this because the beautiful is not the product of our own fantasy, nor of our subjective perception, but has an objective existence, being itself the expression of a Divine perfection. After the Creation, God saw that all things were good. Imagine that every human eye were closed and every human ear stopped up, even then the beautiful remains, and God sees it and hears it, for, not only "His Eternal Power", but also His "Divinity'", from the very creation, has been perceived in his creature, both spiritually and somatically. An artist may notice this in himself. If he realizes how his own art -capacity depends upon his having an eye for art, he must come to the conclusion that the original eye for art is in God Himself, Whose art capacity is all-producing, and after Whose image the artist among men was made. 19 We know this from the creation around us, from the firmament that overarches us, from the abounding luxury of nature, from the wealth of forms in man and animal, from the rushing sound of the stream and from the song of the nightingale; for how could all this beauty have been created, except by One who preconceived the beautiful in His own Nature, and produced it from his own Divine perfection? Thus you see that the Sovereignty of God, and our creation after His Likeness, necessarily lead to that high interpretation of the origin, the nature and the vocation of art, as adopted by Calvin and still approved by our own artistic instinct. The world of sounds, the world of forms, the world of tints and the world of poetic ideas, can have no other source than God, and it is our privilege as bearers of His image, to have a perception of this beautiful world and to be able to enjoy it.

If thus, on this principal point, Calvin’s personal interpretation agrees entirely with the Calvinistic confession, the same applies to the next point in question, If the Sovereignty of God is and remains, for Calvinism, its unchangeable point of departure, then art cannot originate from the Evil One; for Satan is destitute of every creative power. All he can do is to abuse the good gifts of God. Neither can art originate with man, for, being a creature himself, man cannot but employ the powers and gifts put by God at his disposal. If God is and remains Sovereign, then art can work no enchantment except in keeping with the ordinances which God ordained for the beautiful, when He, as the Supreme Artist, called this world into existence. And further, if God is and remains Sovereign, then he also imparts these artistic gifts to whom He will, first even to Cain’s, and not to Abel’s posterity; not as if art were Cainitic, but in order that he who has sinned away the highest gifts, should at least, as Calvin so beautifully says, in the lesser gifts of art have some testimony of the Divine bounty. That artistic ability, that art-capacity, as such, can have room in human nature, we owe to our creation after the image of God. In the real world, God is Creator of everything; the power of really producing new things is His alone, and therefore He always continues to be the creative artist. As God, He alone is the original One, we are only 210 the bearers of His Image. Our capacity to create after Him and after what He created, can only consist in the unreal creations of art. So we, in our fashion, may imitate God’s handiwork. We create a kind of cosmos, in our Architectural monument; to embellish nature’s forms, in Sculpture; to reproduce life, animated by lines and tints, in our Painting; to transfuse the mystical spheres in our Music and in our Poetry. And all this because the beautiful is not the product of our own fantasy, nor of our subjective perception, but has an objective existence, being itself the expression of a Divine perfection. After the Creation, God saw that all things were good. Imagine that every human eye were closed and every human ear stopped up, even then the beautiful remains, and God sees it and hears it, for, not only “His Eternal Power”, but also His “Divinity”, from the very creation, has been perceived in His creature, both spiritually and somatically. An artist may notice this in himself. If he realizes how his own art capacity depends upon his having an eye for art, he must necessarily come to the conclusion that the original eye for art is in God Himself, Whose art capacity is all-producing, and after Whose image the artist among men was made. We know this from the creation around us, from the firmament that overarches us, from the abounding luxury of nature, from the wealth of forms in man and animal, from the rushing sound of the stream and from the song of the nightingale; for how could all this beauty exist, except created by One Who preconceived the beautiful in His own Being, and produced it from His own Divine perfection? Thus you see that the 211 Sovereignty of God, and our creation after His Likeness, necessarily lead to that high interpretation of the origin, the nature and the vocation of art, as adopted by Calvin, and still approved by our own artistic instinct. The world of sounds, the world of forms, the world of tints, and the world of poetic ideas, can have no other source than God; and it is our privilege as bearers of His image, to have a perception of this beautiful world. artistically to reproduce, and humanly to enjoy it.

Portanto, se a interpretação pessoal de Calvino concorda inteiramente com a confissão calvinista sobre este ponto principal, o mesmo se aplica ao próximo ponto em questão. Se para o Calvinismo a soberania de Deus é e continua sendo seu imutável ponto de partida, então a arte não pode originar-se do Diabo; pois Satanás é destituído de todo poder criativo. Tudo que ele pode fazer é abusar das boas dádivas de Deus. Nem pode originar-se com o homem, pois, sendo ele mesmo uma criatura, o homem não pode senão empregar os poderes e dons colocados por Deus à sua disposição. Se Deus é e continua sendo soberano, então a arte não pode produzir nenhum encantamento exceto de acordo com as ordenanças que Deus ordenou para a beleza, quando ele, como o Supremo Artista, chamou este mundo à existência.

E além disso, se Deus é e continua sendo soberano, então ele também confere estes dons artísticos a quem ele quer, primeiramente, então, à posteridade de Caim e não a de Abel; não como se a arte fosse Cainita, mas a fim de que aquele que pecou contra os mais altos dons devesse ao menos, como Calvino tão belamente disse: nos menores dons da arte receber algum testemunho do favor Divino. Esta habilidade e capacidade artística como tal, pode ter lugar na natureza humana, nós a devemos à nossa criação segundo à imagem de Deus. No mundo real, Deus é o Criador de todas as coisas; o poder de produzir coisas realmente novas é seu somente, e portanto continua a ser sempre o artista criador. Como Deus, somente ele é o original, nós somos apenas os portadores de sua Imagem.

Nossa capacidade para criar segundo ele e segundo o que ele criou, pode consistir somente na criação imaginária da arte. Assim nós, à nossa maneira, podemos imitar o trabalho manual de Deus. Nós criamos um tipo de cosmos em nosso monumento Arquitetônico; embelezamos formas da natureza na Escultura; em nossa Pintura reproduzimos a vida, animada por linhas e cores; transfundimos as esferas místicas em nossa Música e em nossa Poesia. E tudo isto porque a beleza não é o produto de nossa própria fantasia, nem de nossa percepção subjetiva, mas tem uma existência objetiva, sendo ela mesma a expressão de uma perfeição Divina.

Após a criação, Deus viu que tudo era bom. Imagine que cada olho humano fosse fechado e cada ouvido humano tapado, ainda assim a beleza permanece, e Deus a vê e a ouve, pois, não somente “seu eterno poder”, mas igualmente sua “divindade”, desde o momento da criação têm sido percebidos em sua criação, tanto espiritual como corporalmente. Um artista pode observar isto em si mesmo. Se ele compreende que sua própria capacidade artística depende de ter um olho para a arte [senso estético], deve necessariamente chegar à conclusão de que “o olho” original para a arte está no próprio Deus, cuja capacidade para produção artística é plena, e segundo esta imagem foi feito o artista entre os homens.

Sabemos isto a partir da criação ao nosso redor, do firmamento que forma um arco sobre nós, do luxo abundante da natureza, da riqueza de formas no homem e no animal, do som das corredeiras e do cântico do rouxinol; como pois toda esta beleza poderia existir exceto se criada pelo Único que preconcebeu a beleza em seu próprio ser e a produziu de sua própria perfeição Divina? Assim, vocês vêem que a soberania de Deus e nossa criação segundo sua semelhança, necessariamente levaram a esta interpretação elevada da origem, da natureza e da vocação da arte, como adotada por Calvino, e ainda aprovada por nosso próprio instinto artístico. O mundo dos sons, o mundo das formas, o mundo das cores e o mundo das idéias poéticas não pode ter outra fonte senão Deus; e é nosso privilégio, como portadores de sua imagem, ter uma percepção deste mundo belo, para reproduzir artisticamente, para gozá-lo humanamente.

Таким образом, по данному вопросу подход Кальвина полностью согласуется с кальвинистским исповеданием. То же самое можно сказать и о следующем пункте: если суверенность Божия остается для кальвинизма неизменной отправной точкой, искусство не может произойти от дьявола, ибо дьявол лишен всякой творческой силы, он лишь злоупотребляет благими дарами Божиими. Не может искусство появиться и от человека, поскольку, будучи творением, человек способен только использовать силы и дары, которые Бог дал в его распоряжение. Если Бог был и остается Верховным Владыкой, искусство может творить красоту лишь в соответствии с установлениями, которые Бог учредил для прекрасного, когда Он как Верховный Художник призвал к существованию этот мир. Более того, если Бог был и остается Верховным Владыкой, Он наделяет артистическими дарами тех, кого пожелает, и сначала — даже потомство Каина, а не Авеля; не потому, что искусство было каиновым, но для того, чтобы согрешивший против высших дарований, по крайней мере (как прекрасно выразился Кальвин) имел в этом низшем даре искусства какое-то свидетельство о божественной щедрости. Тем, что у человека может быть художественное дарование, восприимчивость к искусству, мы обязаны тому, что сотворены по образу Божиему. В реальном мире Бог творит все. Создать что-то новое может только Он, и потому Он был и остается созидателем, художником. Как Бог, Он один изначален, мы — только носим Его образ. Творя по Его подобию и по подобию Его творения, мы создаем лишь ненастоящие произведения искусства. В нашем воображении мы подражаем делу рук Божиих. В здании мы создаем некий вид вселенной; приукрашиваем природные формы в скульптуре; воспроизводим жизнь, одушевленную линиями и оттенками в живописи; переливаем таинственные сферы в нашу музыку и нашу поэзию — и все это потому, что прекрасное не может быть произведением нашей собственной фантазии и не происходит из нашего субъективного восприятия, но объективно существует, выражая божественное совершенство. Сотворив мир, Бог увидел, что все хорошо. Вообразите, что все глаза закрылись, всякое ухо потеряло слух, но и тогда прекрасное остается, Бог видит его и слышит его, ибо не только Его «Вечная Сила», но и Его «Божество» от дней творения воспринимаются в созданном Им и духовно, и телесно. Художник может заметить это в себе самом. Если он осознaет, как его способность к живописи зависит от глаз, то с необходимостью заключит, что первоначальный глаз — в Самом Боге, Чье искусство творит все и по Чьему образу сам художник был сотворен среди других людей. Мы узнаем это из творения вокруг нас, из тверди, которая распростерта над нами, из богатства природы, из разнообразия людей и животных, из бурного потока воды, из песни соловья. Как могла бы существовать вся эта красота, если бы ее не сотворил Тот, Кто прежде замыслил прекрасное в Своем собственном бытии, и произвел его из Своего собственного совершенства? Таким образом, суверенность Бога и наше сотворение по Его образу с необходимостью ведет к тому высокому толкованию возникновения, сущности и призвания искусств, которое принял Кальвин и все еще подтверждают наши художественные дары. Мир звуков, мир форм, мир оттенков, мир поэтических идей не может иметь иного источника кроме Бога; и наша привилегия, привилегия Его образа и подобия — воспринимать этот прекрасный мир, воспроизводить его в художественных формах, и по-человечески им наслаждаться.

En zoo kom ik dan vanzelf op het derde of laatste punt dat ons te onderzoeken staat. Eerst toonde ik u aan dat de onthouding van een eigen kunststijl niet tegen het Calvinisme, maar juist voor zijn hoogeren trap van ontwikkeling pleit. Daarna liet ik u zien, wat hooge opvatting omtrent het wezen der kunst uit de Calvinistische belijdenis voortvloeit. Thans ga ik u aantoonen op wat doortastende wijs het Calvinisme den bloei der kunst èn principieel èn concreet bevorderd heeft.

And thus we come to the third and last point to be investigated. We found that the want of an art-style of its own is no objection against Calvinism, but on the contrary indicates the higher stage of its development. After that, we considered how exalted an interpretation of the nature of art flows from the Calvinistic principle. And now let us see how nobly Calvinism has encouraged the progress of the arts both in principle and in practice.

And thus I come to my third and last point. We found that the want of an art-style of its own, far from being an objection to Calvinism, on the contrary indicates the higher stage of its development. After that, we considered how exalted an interpretation of the nature of art flows from the Calvinistic principle. And now let us see how nobly Calvinism has encouraged the progress of the arts both in principle and in practice.

E assim, chego ao meu terceiro e último ponto. Vimos que a procura por um estilo de arte próprio, longe de ser uma objeção ao Calvinismo, ao contrário, indica o estágio superior de seu desenvolvimento. Depois disto, consideramos como flui do princípio calvinista uma interpretação exaltada sobre a natureza da arte. E agora vamos ver como o Calvinismo nobremente tem encorajado o progresso das artes tanto teoricamente quando na prática.

Теперь я подхожу к третьему и последнему пункту. Мы обнаружили, что отсутствие собственного стиля в искусстве нельзя считать возражением против кальвинизма. Напротив, оно говорит о более высокой стадии развития. После этого мы рассмотрели, какое возвышенное понимание искусства вытекает из кальвинистского принципа. А теперь посмотрим, как достойно кальвинизм поощрял прогресс искусства и в теории, и на практике.

En dan zij er in de eerste plaats op gewezen, dat het Calvinisme de kunst mondig heeft verklaard door ze te ontheffen van de kerkelijke voogdij. Dat de Renaissance gelijke strekking had, betwist ik niet, maar bij de Renaissance ging dit met te eenzijdige voorliefde voor de Paganistische kunstwereld gepaard en onder het inroepen van meer Heidensche dan Christelijke ideeën. Het Calvinisme daarentegen, hoezeer ook voor de vrijmaking van de kunst met de Renaissance saamwerkend, deed dit uitgaande van de Christelijke beseffen, en was ter verwering dier beseffen scherper dan eenige andere godsdienstvorm tegen alle Paganistisch inkruipsel gekant. Om tegenover de oudere Christelijke kerk niet onbillijk te zijn, voegt hier intusschen een iets breedere beschouwing. De Christelijke Religie is opgetreden te midden van een uiterlijk hoog beschaafde, maar innerlijk geheel verkankerde wereld, die dweepte met Heidensche kunst. Om met kracht beginsel tegen beginsel te stellen moest ze dus wel beginnen met de overschatting van de kunst tegen te gaan, ten einde de ongelooflijke kracht die het Heidendom in zijn stuiptrekking juist aan die schoone kunstwereld ontleende, te breken. Tot tijd en wijle de worsteling op leven en dood met het Heidendom beslecht is, is de houding die het Christendom tegenover de kunst aanneemt, dan ook bijna wantrouwend. Schier onmiddellijk daarop nu volgde de instrooming in het hoog beschaafde Romeinsche rijk van de nog weinig beschaafde Germaansche volksstammen, wier spoedig gevolgde kerstening reeds in de achtste eeuw de toongevende macht uit Italië naar benoorden de Alpen verplaatst had. Dit gaf aan de kerk een door niets opgewogen overwicht, en tegelijk een ernstige roeping. Dank zij deze constellatie toch, had zij als voogdesse over alle menschelijk leven op te treden, 153 en van die hooge taak heeft ze zich gekweten op zoo uitnemende wijze, dat zelfs religiehaat en partijstrijd het niet meer waagt aan den roem, dien ze zich verwierf, te knagen. Het kon metterdaad niet anders, of alle menschelijke ontwikkeling moest in die periode door de kerk gevoed en geleid worden. Er kon geen wetenschap, er kon geen kunst opbloeien, of de kerk moest ze dekken met haar schild. En zoo is dan ongedwongen en vanzelf die specifiek Christelijke kunst ontstaan, die in haar eerste aandrift het maximum van geestelijke expressie moest intooveren in het minimum van vorm en tint en toon. Een kunst niet van de natuur afgezien, maar uit de sferen des hemels ingeroepen, die de muziek in den Gregoriaanschen boei sloeg, met penseel en beitel akosmische scheppingen najoeg, en feitelijk alleen in den bouw van haar kathedralen onvergankelijken kunstroem heeft ingeoogst. Alle opvoedende voogdij intusschen werkt aan eigen vernietiging. Een goed voogd streeft er zelf naar, zoo spoedig het kan, zijn voogdij overbodig te maken, en poogt hij, in strijd hiermeê, ook als mondigheid intrad, zijn voogdij te bestendigen, dan ontstaat er onnatuur en prikkelt de voogdij tot verzet. Toen dan ook de eerste opvoeding der volkeren voltooid kon heeten, en de kerk nochtans haar hoogheid over heel het gebied des levens bleef uitstrekken, is er achtereenvolgens van vier zijden tegelijk roering en beweging ontstaan, op kunstgebied in de Renaissance, op politiek gebied in het Republicanisme van Italië, voor wat de wetenschap aangaat in het Humanisme, en ten slotte centraal voor wat de Religie betreft, in de Reformatie.

And here, in the first place, I draw your attention to the important fact that it was ( lalvinism who, by releasing art from the guardianship of the Church, first recognized its majority. I do not deny that the Renaissance had the same tendency, but, with the Renaissance, this was marred by a too one-sided preference for the Paganistic, and a passion for ideas more Heathen than Christian ; while Calvin, on the other hand, kept firmly to the Christian ideas, and more sharply even than any other Reformer opposed every Paganistic influence. To deal justly however with the older 20 Christian Church a somewhat fuller explanation is here in place. The Christian Religion made its appearance in a world, which, though thoroughly demoralized, still recommended itself by its high civilization and its artistic splendour. Therefore, in order to oppose principle to principle, Christianity was bound, at the outset, to react against the thendominating overestimation of art, and thereby to break the dangerous influence which Paganism was exercising, in its last convulsion, by tbe enchantment of its beautiful world. As long, therefore, as the struggle with Paganism remained a struggle for life or death, the relation of Christianity to art could not but lie an hostile one. This first period was followed almost immediately by the influx into the highly civilized Roman Empire of the still almost barbaric Germanic tribes, after whose speed}' baptism the centre of pow 7 er gradually removed from Italy to beyond the Northern Alps, thus giving, to the Church, as early as the 8th century an almost exclusive ascendency over the whole of Europe. Thanks to this constellation, the Church for several centuries became the guardian of higher human life, and so nobly did she acquit herself of this exalted task that no religious hatred or party prejudice dares question any longer the glorious result she then achieved. In the literal sense of the word, all human development of that period depended entirely upon the church. No science and no art could prosper unless shielded by ecclesiastical protection. And hence originated that specifically Christian art, which, in its first passion, tried to embody the maximum of spiritual essence in the minimum of form and tint and tone. It was no art copied from nature, but art invoked from out the spheres of heaven, which fettered music in the Gregorian chains, the pencil and chisel of which longed after acosmic creations, and which only in the building of the cathedrals attained the really beautiful and reaped imperishable fame. All educational guardianship, meanwhile, leads to its own dissolution. A rightminded guardian intends to render his guard- 21 ianship superfluous as soon as possible, and he who tries to prolong his control, even after his ward has reached maturity, creates an unnatural relation and makes his guardianship itself an incentive to resistance. When therefore the first education of Northern Europe was completed, and the church still persisted in swaying her absolute sceptre across the entire domain of life, four great movements were started from as many different sides, viz., the Renaissance, in the domain of art, the Republicanism of Italy in politics, Humanism in science, and lastly and centrally, in Religion, the Reformation.

And here, in the first place, I draw your attention to the important fact that it was Calvinism which, by releasing art from the guardianship of the Church, first recognized its majority. I do not deny that the Renaissance had the same tendency, but, with the Renaissance, this was marred by a too one-sided preference for the Paganistic, and a passion for ideas more Heathen than Christian; while Calvin, on the other hand, kept firmly to the Christian ideas, and more sharply even than any other Reformed opposed every Paganistic influence, To deal justly however with the older 212 Christian Church a somewhat fuller explanation is here in place. The Christian Religion made its appearance in the Greek and Roman world, which, though thoroughly demoralized, still recommended itself by its high civilization and its artistic splendor. Therefore, in order to oppose principle to principle, Christianity was bound. at the outset, to react against the then-dominating over-estimation of art, and thereby to break the dangerous influence which Paganism was exercising. in its last convulsion, by the enchantment of its beautiful world. As long, therefore, as the struggle with Paganism remained a struggle for life or death. the relation of Christianity to art could not but be an hostile one. This first period was followed almost immediately by the influx into the highly civilized Roman Empire of the still almost barbaric Germanic tribes, after whose speedy baptism the center of power gradually removed from Italy to beyond the Northern Alps, thus giving to the Church, as early as the 8th century, an almost exclusive ascendancy over the whole of Europe. Thanks to this constellation, the Church for several centuries became the guardian of higher human life, and so nobly did she acquit herself of this exalted task that no religious hatred or party prejudice dares question any longer the glorious result she then achieved. In the literal sense of the word, all human development of that period depended entirely upon the Church. No science and no art could prosper unless shielded by ecclesiastical protection. And hence originated that specifically Christian art, which, in its first passion, tried to embody the maximum of spiritual 213 essence in the minimum of form and tint and tone. It was no art copied from nature, but art invoked from out the spheres of heaven, which fettered music in the Gregorian chains, the pencil and chisel of which longed after acosmic creations, and which only in the building of the cathedrals attained the really Sublime and reaped imperishable fame. All educational guardianship, meanwhile, leads to its own dissolution. A right-minded guardian intends to render his guardianship superfluous as soon as possible, and he who tries to prolong his control. even after his ward has reached maturity, creates an unnatural relation and makes his guardianship itself an incentive to resistance. When therefore the first education of Northern Europe was completed. and the church still persisted in swaying her absolute sceptre across the entire domain of life, four great movements were started from as many different sides, viz., the Renaissance, in the domain of art, the Republicanism of Italy in politics, Humanism in science, and centrally, in Religion, the Reformation.

E aqui, em primeiro lugar, chamo sua atenção para o importante fato de que foi o Calvinismo que, libertando a arte da tutela da Igreja, primeiramente reconheceu sua maioridade. Não nego que a Renascença teve a mesma tendência, mas com ela esta tendência foi desfigurada por uma preferência unilateral pelo Paganismo e por uma paixão por conceitos mais pagãos que cristãos; enquanto Calvino, por outro lado, manteve firmemente os conceitos cristãos e, até mesmo, mais claramente do que qualquer outro reformado, opôs-se a toda influência paganística. Contudo, para lidar imparcialmente com a Igreja cristã mais antiga uma explicação um pouco mais plena é apropriada aqui.

A Religião Cristã surgiu no mundo Grego e Romano, o qual, embora completamente corrompido, ainda recomendava-se por sua alta civilização e seu esplendor artístico. Portanto, a fim de contrapor princípio a princípio, o Cristianismo foi obrigado, no início, a reagir contra a superestimação da arte então dominante, e assim quebrar as influências perigosas que o Paganismo estava exercendo, em sua última convulsão, pelo encantamento de seu belo mundo. Portanto, já que a luta contra o Paganismo era uma luta de vida ou morte, a relação do Cristianismo com a arte não poderia ser senão uma relação hostil. Este primeiro período foi quase imediatamente seguido pela afluência para dentro do altamente civilizado Império Romano das ainda quase bárbaras tribos germânicas, após seu rápido batismo o centro de poder gradualmente mudou-se da Itália para além dos Alpes do Norte, dando assim à Igreja, já no século oitavo, uma ascendência quase exclusiva sobre toda a Europa. Graças a esta brilhante reunião, por diversos séculos a Igreja tornou-se a guardiã da vida humana mais elevada, e desempenhou tão nobremente esta exaltada tarefa que nenhum ódio religioso ou preconceito partidário ousa questionar os gloriosos resultados que ela então alcançou. No sentido literal da palavra, todo desenvolvimento humano daquele período dependia inteiramente da Igreja.

Nem a ciência, nem a arte poderiam prosperar exceto escudadas pela proteção eclesiástica. E daí originou-se aquela arte especificamente cristã, a qual, em sua primeira paixão, tentou incorporar o máximo da essência espiritual no mínimo de forma, cor e tons. Não foi a arte copiada da natureza, mas a arte invocada das esferas do céu que restringiu a música aos cantos Gregorianos, que levou o pincel e o formão a desejarem criações acósmicas e que atingiu o realmente Sublime e colheu fama imortal somente na construção das catedrais.

Toda tutela educacional, entretanto, conduz à sua própria dissolução. Um tutor honesto tenciona exercer sua tutela tão superficialmente quanto possível e aquele que tenta prolongar seu controle, mesmo depois de seu tutelado ter alcançado a maioridade, cria uma relação anormal e faz de sua própria tutela um incentivo à resistência. Portanto, quando a primeira educação do Norte da Europa foi completada e a igreja ainda persistiu em inclinar seu cetro absoluto sobre todos os campos da vida, quatro grandes movimentos foram iniciados em lados muitos diferentes, a saber, a Renascença no campo da arte, o Republicanismo da Itália na política, o Humanismo na ciência, e centralmente, a Reforma na religião.

Прежде всего я обращу ваше внимание на то, что именно кальвинизм, освободив искусство от церковной опеки, первым осознал его значение. Не отрицаю, что Ренессанс являл такую же тенденцию, но она была искажена односторонним предпочтением, отдаваемым языческому, а также страстной приверженностью идеям скорее языческим, нежели христианским. Кальвин же твердо придерживался христианства, и еще острее, чем все остальные реформаты, противостоял всякому языческому влиянию. Однако, чтобы отдать должное древней христианской церкви, здесь уместно некоторое пояснение. Христианство появилось в греческом и римском мире, который был основательно деморализован, но все еще отличался высокой цивилизацией и художественным великолепием. Чтобы противопоставить принцип принципу, христианство с самого начала было вынуждено отвергнуть преобладающий тогда культ искусства и тем самым покончить с опасным влиянием, которое оказывало язычество, даже перед своим концом, очарованием своего прекрасного мира. Пока борьба с язычеством шла не на жизнь, а на смерть, отношение христианства к искусству не могло не быть враждебным. Этот период сменился достаточно скоро тем, что на высокоцивилизованную Римскую Империю хлынули варварские германские племена. После их быстрого крещения центр власти постепенно переместился из Италии за Северные Альпы, давая Церкви возможность, едва начался VIII век, возвыситься невиданным образом над всей Европой. Благодаря этим событиям Церковь на несколько веков стала хранительницей более достойной человеческой жизни, и столь благородно исполнила эту задачу, что ни религиозная ненависть, ни партийное предубеждение не смеют оспаривать успехов, которых она тогда достигла. В буквальном смысле слова все человеческое развитие того времени полностью зависело от Церкви. Никакая наука и никакое искусство не могли процветать, если она их не охраняла. Так родилось то особое христианское искусство, которое попыталось воплотить максимум духовной сути в минимуме формы и цвета. Не скопированное с природы, а призванное с небес, оно сковало музыку григорианскими цепями, тянулось к потустороннему, а возведение кафедральных соборов достигло своей вершины и снискало неувядаемую славу. Всякая опека Церкви в сфере образования тем временем двигалась к своему концу. Умный опекун как можно быстрее стремится сделать свою опеку излишней, а тот, кто пытается ее удлинить, хотя его питомец достиг зрелости, создает неестественные отношения и вызывает протест. Когда первый этап просвещения Северной Европы был завершен, а Церковь все еще настаивала на том, чтобы держать свой скипетр над всеми сферами жизни, с четырех разных сторон возникли четыре великих движения: Ренессанс в искусстве, итальянский республиканизм в политике, гуманизм в науке, а в центре, в религии — Реформация.

Deze vier bewegingen ontvingen haar aandrift ongetwijfeld uit zeer uiteenloopende, vaak tegenstrijdige beginselen, maar toch waren ze alle hierin één, dat ze ontkoming aan de kerkelijke voogdij bedoelden, en een levensuiting nastreefden uit eigen zelfstandig besef. Dat ge deze vier machten in de zestiende eeuw zoo telkens saâm in bond ziet optreden, heeft dan ook niets dat verwondering baart. Het was het ééne menschenleven, dat den voogdijband ontwassen was, en daarom drong en perste naar vrijer ontwikkeling, en waar nu de oude voogdesse met hand en tand de mondigverklaring zocht tegen te houden, was het natuurlijk, dat men over 154 en weer elkaâr ter vrijmaking steunde. Zonder die verstandhouding zou de voogdij over heel Europa bestendigd en na het ondernomen verzet verergerd zijn; dank zij die samenwerking, is het verzet met verwerving van volledige mondigheid bekroond, en mag geroemd, dat van die ure af én kunst én wetenschap én staatkunde, én Religie zijn vrijgemaakt.

No doubt these four movements received their impulse from very different, and in some cases conflicting principles, but they all agreed on this one point, viz., that they must escape from ecclesiastical tutelage, and create a life of their own in accordance with their own principle. Therefore, it is not at all surprising, that, in the 1 6th century, these four powers repeatedly acted in concert. It was the one human life that, weary of any further guardianship, hastened in every way after a freer development, and therefore, when the old guardian tried with tooth and nail to hold back the declaration of maturity, it was but natural that those four powers should encourage one another, fiercely to resist, nor to desist before freedom was obtained. "Without this quadruple alliance not only would the tutelage of the church have persevered over all Europe, but, once the rebellion crushed, its rule would have become even more grievous and intolerable than beforehand. Thanks to this cooperation, the bold undertaking was crowned with enduring success, and the combatants, by their combined energy, earned the everlasting glory of having brought art and science, as well as politics and Religion, to the full enjoyment of maturity.

No doubt these four movements received their impulse from very different, and in some cases conflicting principles, but they all agreed on this one point, viz., that they tried to escape from ecclesiastical tutelage, and to create a life of their own in accordance with their own principle. Hence it is not at all surprising that, in the 16th century, these four powers repeatedly acted in concert. It was the one human life that, weary of any further guardianship, hastened in every way after a freer development, and therefore, when the old guardian tried by main force to hold back the declaration 214 of maturity it was but natural that those four powers should encourage one another fiercely to resist. nor to desist before freedom was obtained. Without this quadruple alliance not only would the tutelage of the Church have persevered over all Europe but — the rebellion once crushed — its rule would have become even more grievous and intolerable than beforehand. Thanks to this cooperation, the bold undertaking was crowned with enduring success, and the combatants, by their combined energy, earned the everlasting glory of having brought art and science, as well as politics and Religion, to the full enjoyment of maturity.

Sem dúvida, estes quatro movimentos receberam seu impulso de princípios muito diferentes, e em alguns casos de princípios conflitantes, mas todos eles concordavam neste ponto, a saber, que eles tentavam escapar da tutela eclesiástica e criar uma vida própria de acordo com seus próprios princípios. Por isso, não é de todo surpreendente que, no século 16, estes quatro poderes repetidamente agiram em comum acordo. Era a vida humana que, cansada de toda tutela adicional, apressava-se de todos os modos para um desenvolvimento mais livre e, portanto, quando o velho tutor tentou por meio da força impedir a declaração de maturidade, era natural que aqueles quatro poderes se encorajassem um ao outro a resistir ferozmente, a não desistir antes que a liberdade fosse obtida. Sem esta quádrupla aliança a tutela da Igreja não somente teria sido preservada sobre toda a Europa, mas – a rebelião uma vez esmagada – seu governo teria se tornado ainda mais cruel e intolerável do que anteriormente. Graças a esta cooperação, o audacioso empreendimento foi coroado com sucesso duradouro, e os combatentes, por sua energia combinada, conseguiram a glória eterna de ter levado a arte e a ciência, bem como a política e a religião, ao pleno gozo da maturidade.

Несомненно, эти четыре движения получили свой импульс от весьма разных, а то и враждующих принципов. Но все они сходились в том, что стремились избежать опеки Церкви и создать свою собственную жизнь в соответствии с собственными принципами. Поэтому совсем не удивительно, что в XVI столетии эти четыре силы нередко действовали сообща. Люди устали от опеки и любым способом стремились к более свободному развитию. Когда старый опекун попытался силой удержать взрослого питомца, четыре силы, совершенно естественно, стали поощрять друг друга к яростному сопротивлению и не прекращали его до тех пор, пока не достигли свободы. Без этого четырехстороннего союза опека Церкви не только сохранилась бы над всей Европой, но и, подавив мятеж, стала бы еще мрачней и нетерпимей. Благодаря сотрудничеству смелое предприятие было увенчано далеко идущим успехом, и союзники объединенными усилиями заслужили вечную славу, дав науке и искусству, политике и религии все права совершеннолетия.

Zal men nu daarom zeggen mogen, dat het Calvinisme wel de Religie, maar niet de kunst heeft bevrijd, en dat de eere van de vrijverklaring der kunst moet gelaten aan de Renaissance? En dan beaam ik dit laatste volkomen voor wat aangaat de innerlijke kracht waarmeê de kunst zelve voor haar vrijheid opkwam. Het aesthetisch genie, als ik mij zoo mag uitdrukken, was door God zelf in den Griekschen geest gelegd, en alleen door de grondkrachten, die dit Grieksch genie aan het licht bracht, weer met blij gejuich binnen te laten, kon de kunst haar aanspraak op een zelfstandig bestaan bewijzen. Zonder meer echter zou dit nimmer tot de ingewachte vrijmaking geleid hebben. Immers de toenmalige kerk verzette zich tegen de toelating van dit klassieke kunstelement in het minst niet. De Renaissance werd niet aan de deur afgewezen, maar binnengelaten. Welhaast verrijkte de Christelijke kunst zich met het beste wat de Renaissance te bieden had, en in de dusgenaamde Cinquecento of hoog-Renaissance zijn het Bramante en Da Vinci, Michael Angelo en Rafaël, die den splendor ecclesiae met een kunstschat verrijkten, die eenig en onnavolgbaar, laat staan overtrefbaar is te noemen. Zoo bleef de oude band kerk en kunst verbinden, en die band vanzelf een duurzaam patronaat vestigen. Voor een wezenlijke vrijmaking der kunst was uit dien hoofde nog iets geheel anders noodig. De kerk moest uit beginsel naar het geestelijk terrein worden teruggedrongen, ook de kunst die zich in heilige sferen bewoog, moest in het maatschappelijke leven zelf optreden, en de Religie moest in de kerk haar symbolisch gewaad afleggen, juist om, na die verheffing tot hooger geestelijken trap, heel het leven te kunnen doorademen. Het is metterdaad gelijk Von Hartmann het zegt: „Het is de zuiver geestelijke Religie, die wel met de ééne hand aan den kunstenaar zijn specifiek godsdienstige kunst ontneemt, maar die hem in ruil 155 hiervoor met de andere hand een geheele wereld biedt, die religieus doorademd is” ¹²⁾. En zulk een zuiver geestelijke Religie nu is door Luther wel nagejaagd, maar toch eerst door het Calvinisme gegrepen. Eerst dank zij het Calvinisme is met den splendor ecclesiae, d.i. met haar uitwendige schittering gebroken, gebroken met haar onmetelijk kerkbezit, dat de kunst geldelijk geboeid hield, en gebroken ook met dat uitwendig machtsvertoon, dat niet kon rusten eer het alle uiting van menschelijk leven aan zich onderwierp. En zij het nu al, dat ook het Humanisme dit drukkende en onnatuurlijke kerkelijk wezen bestreed, toch kon het Humanisme, denk slechts aan Erasmus, dit nimmer met hope op goed gevolg doen. Immers de triomf was hier weggelegd niet voor wie zelf op Religieus gebied slechts negatief den strijd aanbond, maar alleen voor hem die de symbolische religie door het opklimmen tot een hooger religieus standpunt, te boven kwam. En daarom mag zonder vrees voor overdrijving beweerd, dat het Calvinisme ten slotte den doorslag heeft gegeven en dat eerst, dank zij zijn taaie volharding, aan de voogdij der kerk over heel ons menschelijk leven, en zoo ook aan haar voogdij over de kunst, een einde is gemaakt.

Will it be fair on this ground to assert that Calvinism has freed Religion, and not art, and that the honors of the emancipation of art belong exclusively to the Re- 22 naissance ? I readily grant that the Renaissance has a right to claim its share of the victory, especially in so far as it stimulated art herself to vindicate her liberty by her wonderful productions. Aesthetic genius, if I may so call it, had been implanted by God Himself, in the Greek, and only by hailing again, amid loud rejoicings, the fundamental powers of art, which Greek genius had discovered, could art justify her claim to an independent existence. This by itself however could not have achieved the desired liberation. For the church of those days did not in the least oppose classical art as such. On the contrary, she welcomed the Renaissance, and Christian art did not hesitate a moment to enrich herself with the best the Renaissance had to offer. In the so-called Cinquecento, or high-Renaissance, Bramante and Da Vinci. Michael Angelo and Raphael stored the splendor ecclesiae with treasures of art, quite unique and inimitable, never to be surpassed. Thus the old tie continued to unite church and art, and this of itself established a permanent patronage. The real liberation of art required much more patent energies. From principle, the church was to be forced back to her spiritual realm. Art, having hitherto confined herself to the holy spheres, had now to make her appearance in the social world. And in the church. Religion had to put aside her symbolical robes, in order that, after having ascended to the higher spiritual level, her life-giving breath might animate the whole world. Just as Von Hartmann truly observes: "It is pure spiritual Religion which with one hand deprives the artist of his specifically religious art, but which, with the other, offers him, in exchange, a whole world, to be religiously animated." Now Luther certainly desired such a pure, spiritual Religion, but Calvinism was the first to grasp it. First under the stirring impulses of Calvinism, our fathers broke with the splendor ecclesiae, i. e., with her outward glitter, with her vast possessions, by which art was financially held in bondage, and also with her outward exhibition of power, 23 which could not rest until it had subjected to itself evenexpression of human life. And although Humanism rebelled against this oppressive and unnatural state of things, it could never hope to effect a radical change if left to its own resources. Only think of Erasmus. Triumph in the struggle of that time was not reserved for. the man who carried on the strife for Religious liberty by mere criticism, but only for him, who, standing on an higher stage of religious development, overcame the symbolical religion as such. And, therefore, we may boldly assert that it was Calvinism who prompted the spirited impulse by which the victory was won, and, by its indefatigable perseverance, has put au end to the unjustified tutelage of the church over all human life, art included.

Will it be fair on this ground to assert that Calvinism has freed Religion, and not Art, and that the honors of the emancipation of art belong exclusively to the Renaissance? I readily grant that the Renaissance has a right to claim its share of the victory, especially in so far as it stimulated art herself to vindicate her liberty by her wonderful productions. Aesthetic genius, if I may so call it, had been implanted by God Himself in the Greek, and only by hailing again, amid loud rejoicings, the fundamental laws of art, which Greek genius had discovered, could art justify her claim to an independent existence. This by itself, however, could not have achieved the desired liberation. For the church of those days did not in the least oppose classical art as such. On the contrary, she welcomed the Renaissance, and Christian art did not hesitate a moment to enrich herself with the best the Renaissance had to offer. In the so-called Cinquecento, or high-Renaissance, Bramante and Da Vinci, Michael Angelo 215 and Raphael, stored the Romish Cathedrals with treasures of art, quite unique and inimitable, never to be surpassed. Thus the old tie continued to unite Church and Art, and this of itself established a permanent patronage. The real liberation of art required much more patent energies. From principle, the Church was to be forced back to her spiritual realm. Art, having hitherto confined herself to the holy spheres, had now to make her appearance in the social world. And in the Church. Religion had to put aside her symbolical robes, in order that, after having ascended to the higher spiritual level, her life giving breath might animate the whole world. Just as Von Hartmann truly observes: “It is pure spiritual Religion which with one hand deprives the artist of his specifically religious art, but which, with the other, offers him, in exchange, a whole world, to be religiously animated.” Now Luther certainly desired such a pure, spiritual Religion, but Calvinism was the first to grasp it. First under the stirring impulses of Calvinism. our fathers broke with the splendor ecclesiae, i.e., with her outward glitter, and so also with her vast possessions, by which art was financially held in bondage. And although Humanism rebelled against this oppressive and unnatural state of things, it could never hope to effect a radical change if left to its own resources. Only think of Erasmus. Triumph in the struggle of that time was not reserved for the man who carried on the strife for Religious liberty by mere criticism, but only for him, who, standing on an higher stage of religious development, overcame the symbolical religion as such. And, therefore, we may boldly assert that it 216 was Calvinism which prompted the spirited impulse by which the victory was won, and, by its indefatigable perseverance, has put an end to the unjustified tutelage of the church over all human life, art included.

Será possível afirmar, sobre esta base, que o Calvinismo libertou a Religião e não a Arte, e que a honra da emancipação da arte pertence exclusivamente à Renascença? Francamente, admito que a Renascença tem o direito de reivindicar seu quinhão na vitória, especialmente à medida que estimulou a própria arte a vindicar sua liberdade por suas maravilhosas produções. O talento estético, se posso assim chamá-lo, foi implantado pelo próprio Deus no Grego, e a arte poderia justificar sua reivindicação por uma existência independente somente por chamar novamente, entre altos júbilos, as leis fundamentais da arte, que o talento grego tinha descoberto. Isto por si mesmo, contudo, não teria obtido a libertação desejada. Pois a igreja daqueles dias não fazia a mínima oposição a arte clássica como tal. Pelo contrário, deu as boas-vindas à Renascença, e a arte cristã não hesitou por um momento em enriquecer-se com o melhor que a Renascença tinha a oferecer.

No assim chamado Cinquecento, ou Alta-Renascença, Bramante e Da Vinci, Miquelângelo e Rafael abasteceram as Catedrais Romanas com tesouros de arte, completamente únicos e inimitáveis, jamais ultrapassados. Assim, o velho laço continuou a unir a Igreja e a Arte, e isto por si mesmo estabeleceu um patrocínio permanente.

A verdadeira libertação da arte requeria energias muito mais patentes. A princípio, a Igreja devia ser forçada a voltar-se para seu reino espiritual. A arte, até então confinada às esferas santas, agora deveria apresentar-se no mundo social. E na Igreja, a Religião deveria por de lado suas togas simbólicas a fim de que, após ter subido ao nível espiritual mais alto, seu fôlego vivificante pudesse animar todo o mundo. Exatamente como Von Hartmann fielmente observa: “É a Religião espiritual pura que com uma mão priva o artista de sua arte especificamente religiosa, mas que com a outra lhe oferece em troca um mundo todo para ser religiosamente animado”.

Lutero, certamente, desejou uma religião espiritual pura como esta, mas foi o Calvinismo o primeiro a apossar-se dela. Primeiro, sob os excitantes impulsos do Calvinismo, nossos pais romperam com o splendor ecclesiae, isto é, com seu brilho exterior, e assim também com suas numerosas possessões pelas quais a arte era financeiramente conservada em escravidão. E embora o Humanismo se rebelasse contra este estado de coisas opressivo e anormal, se dependesse de seus próprios recursos, nunca poderia realizar uma mudança radical. Lembrem-se somente de Erasmo. O triunfo na luta daquele tempo não foi reservado ao homem que levou avante a disputa pela liberdade religiosa por meio da simples crítica, mas somente por aquele que, estando num estágio de desenvolvimento religioso mais elevado, superou a religião simbólica como tal. E, portanto, podemos audaciosamente afirmar que foi o Calvinismo que estimulou o corajoso impulso pelo qual a vitória foi obtida, e, por sua incansável perseverança, colocou um fim na tutela injustificada da igreja sobre toda vida humana, inclusive sobre a arte.

Справедливо ли на этом основании утверждать, что кальвинисты освободили религию, а не искусство, и что честь его эмансипации принадлежит только Ренессансу? Я с готовностью признаю, что Ренессанс имеет право претендовать на участие в победе, поскольку он стимулировал само искусство отстаивать свободу своими чудесными творениями. Эстетический гений, если можно так его назвать, был вложен Самим Богом в Грецию, и только снова признав и восславив основные законы, им открытые, искусство могло оправдать свои притязания на независимость. Однако само по себе это не могло принести желанную свободу. Церковь тех дней ни в малейшей степени не противостояла классическому искусству как таковому. Напротив, она приветствовала Ренессанс, и христианское искусство было только радо обогатить себя лучшим из того, что он мог предложить. В так называемом Cinquecento (XVI в.), или высоком Ренессансе, Браманте и да Винчи, Микеланджело и Рафаэль обогатили католические соборы сокровищами искусства, совершенно уникальными и неподражаемыми, до сих пор непревзойденными. Древние связи продолжали соединять Церковь и искусство, и само по себе это способствовало постоянному покровительству. Действительное освобождение искусства требовало гораздо больших усилий. Исходя из принципов Реформации, Церковь надо было вернуть в духовную сферу. Ограничивая себя до той поры священными сферами, искусство должно было явить себя в социальном мире. Религия должна была отложить свои символические облачения, чтобы, взойдя на более высокий духовный уровень, обновить весь мир своим животворящим дыханием. Как справедливо заметил фон Гартман, «чисто духовная религия одной рукой лишает художника особого религиозного искусства, а другой предлагает ему взамен религиозно воодушевить весь мир». Лютер, конечно, желал чистой, духовной религии, но именно кальвинизм первым уловил ее сущность. Сначала под влиянием его пробуждающих импульсов наши отцы порвали с splendor ecclesiae (великолепием Церкви), т. е. с ее внешним блеском, и огромными владениями, через которые она держала искусство в финансовом плену. Гуманизм восстал против этого неестественного положения вещей, но у него не было никакой надежды на радикальные перемены, если бы он оставался при своих собственных ресурсах. Вспомните хотя бы Эразма. Человеку, который сражался за веру посредством одной лишь критики, не приходилось рассчитывать на победу. Успех выпадал только тому, кто, находясь на более высокой ступени религиозного развития, преодолевал символический характер религии как таковой. Можно смело сказать, что именно кальвинизм дал тот духовный импульс, с помощью которого была одержана победа, и своей несгибаемой стойкостью положил конец неоправданной опеке Церкви над всей человеческой жизнью, включая искусство.

Intusschen geef ik voetstoots toe, dat deze uitkomst bloot toevallig zou geweest zijn, indien geen diepere opvatting van het menschelijk leven, en zoo ook van de kunst, hierbij in het spel ware geweest. Toen Italië onder Victor Emanuël, met hulp van Garibaldi, werd vrijgemaakt, sloeg de ure der vrijheid ook voor de Waldenzen in Midden- en Zuid-Italië, maar zonder dat óf de Re galantuomo óf Garibaldi dit hadden bedoeld. Zoo kon het dus ook zijn, dat het Calvinisme in zijn worsteling voor menschelijke vrijheid, feitelijk ook den band had los gemaakt, die dusver de kunst geboeid hield, maar zonder zulks krachtens zijn beginsel te hebben gewild. Nog op een tweede iets moet ik u daarom wijzen, waardoor het pleit eerst beslecht wordt. Reeds herhaaldelijk vestigde ik uw aandacht op de hooge beteekenis van het leerstuk der “algemeene genade”, en ook hier, bij de kunst, kom ik daarop terug. Wat kerkelijk zal zijn moet het geloofsstempel dragen en Christelijke 156 kunst kan alleen van geloovigen uitgaan. Zoek ik dus in een specifiek Christelijke kunst de eigenlijke, de ware kunst, dan spreek ik hiermeê uit, dat de edele kunstgave alleen het deel van de geloovigen is. Daartegenover echter spreekt Calvijn het nu uit, dat de artes liberales gaven zijn, die God “promiscue piis et impiis” ¹³⁾ d.i. door elkaâr en onverschillig aan geloovigen en niet-geloovigen heeft toebedeeld, ja die blijkens de historie zelfs in milder mate juist buiten den geloofskring geblonken hebben. “De uitstraling van het Goddelijk licht,” zegt hij, “greep naar de ervaring ons leert, vaak juist het krachtigst plaats in ongeloovige volken” ¹⁴⁾. En dit nu juist keert de orde van zaken om. Bindt ge het hooge kunstgenot aan de wedergeboorte, dan is deze gave uitsluitend het deel der geloovigen, en moet ze kerkelijk blijven. Ze vloeit dan uit de particuliere genade. Maar oordeelt ge, met de ervaring der historie voor oogen, dat ook het hoogste kunstgenie tot de natuurlijke gaven behoort, en alzoo tot die uitnemendheden, die, in weerwil van de zonde, door de algemeene genade in onze menschelijke natuur bleven uitblinken, dan volgt hieruit, dat de kunst beiden geloovigen en ongeloovigen bezielen kan, en dat God vrijmachtig blijft om ze onder Heiden- en Christenvolken uit te deelen naar zijn vrijmachtig welbehagen. Dit geldt dan niet alleen van de kunst maar van alle natuurlijke uitingen van het menschelijk leven, gelijk dit bij name uitkomt, zoo ge in de oudheid Israël met de volken vergelijkt. Wat het heilige betreft, is Israël uitverkoren, en niet slechts boven alle volken, maar alleen onder alle volken gezegend. In het stuk der Religie bezit Israël niet slechts meer, maar alleen de waarheid, en gaan alle andere volken, zelfs de Grieken en Romeinen, onder de heerschappij der leugen gebukt. De Christus is niet deels uit Israël en deels uit de volken, maar uit Israël alleen. De zaligheid is uit de Joden. Maar zoo rijk als Israël op godsdienstig gebied schittert, zoo verbleekt zijn gelaat, als ge zijn kunstontwikkeling, zijn wetenschappelijke ontwikkeling, zijn latere rijks- en staatsontwikkeling, de ontwikkeling van 157 zijn handel en nijverheid met die der omliggende volken vergelijkt. Dat Hiram uit het Heidenland naar Jeruzalem moest komen, om Sions tempel te bouwen, is hier welsprekend. Een Salomo, in wien de wijsheid Gods was, wist niet alleen, dat Israël op bouwgebied achterstond, maar erkende dit door van elders hulp in te roepen, en toonde ons door heel zijn doen dat Hirams komst niet een gemis verried waarover hij zich schaamde, maar een natuurlijk iets was, dat in Gods bestel lag opgenomen.

Meanwhile I readily grant that this outcome would have been purely accidental, if Calvinism had not, at the same time, led to a deeper interpretation of human life and human art. When, under Victor Emmanuel, with the help of Garibaldi, Italy was made free, the day of liberty also dawned for the Waldenses, in Middle and Southern Italy, but neither the Be galantuomo, nor Garibaldi, had even thought of the Waldensians. Thus it were possible that in its struggle for human liberty Calvinism also cut the tie that thus far held art a captive, but without having in the least intended to do this, by virtue of its principle. And therefore I must still illustrate the second factor, which alone decides the case. I have already, more than once, called your attention to the important significance of the Calvinistic doctrine of ''common grace," and in this lecture on art. I must refer to it again. That which is to be ecclesiastical must bear the stamp of faith, therefore Christian art can only go out from believers. If therefore I only recognise as a real, true art the so-called Christain art, I thereby claim that the exalted gift of art is only the portion of believers. Calvinism, on the contrary, has taught us that all liberal arts are gifts which God imparts promiscuously to be- 24 lievers and to unbelievers, yea, that, as history shows, these gifts have flourished even in a larger measure outside the holy circle. '"These radiations of Divine Light," he wrote, "shone more brilliantly among unbelieving people than among God's saints." And this of course quite reverses the proposed order of things. If you limit the higher enjoyment of art to regeneration, then this gift is exclusively the portion of believers, and must bear an ecclesiastical character. In that case it is the outcome of particular grace. But if, at the hand of experience and history, you become persuaded that the highest art-instincts are natural gifts, and hence belong to those excellent graces which, in spite of sin, by virtue of common (/race, have continued to shine in human nature, it plainly follows that art can inspire both believers and unbelievers, and that God remains Sovereign to impart it, in His good pleasure, alike to Heathen and to Christian nations. This applies not only to art, but to all the natural utterances of human life, and is illustrated by the comparison in early times between Israel and the other nations. As far as holy things are concerned, Israel is chosen, and is not only blessed above all nations, but stands among all nations, isolated. In the question of Religion, Israel has not only a larger share, but Israel alone has the truth, and all the other nations, even the Greeks and the Romans, are bent beneath the yoke of falsehood. Christ is not partly of Israel and partly of the nations ; He is of Israel alone. Salvation is of the •lews. But just in proportion as Israel shines forth from within the domain of Religion, so is it equally backward when you compare the development of its art, science, politics, commerce and trade to that of the surrounding nations. It is noteworthy that the building of the Temple required the coming of Hiram from a heathen country to Jerusalem. And Solomon, in whom, after all, was found the Wisdom of God, not only knows that Israel stands behind in architecture and needs help from without, 25 but by his action be publicly shows that he, as the king of the Jews is in no way ashamed of Hiram's corning, which he lealizes as a natural ordinance of God.

Meanwhile I readily grant that this outcome would have been purely accidental, if Calvinism had not, at the same time, led to a deeper interpretation of human life and so of human art. When, under Victor Emmanuel, with the help of Garibaldi, Italy was made free, the day of liberty also dawned for the Waldenses, in Middle and Southern Italy, but neither the Re galantuomo, nor Garibaldi, had even thought of the Waldensians. Thus it were possible that in its struggle for human liberty Calvinism also cut the tie that thus far held art a captive, but without having in the least intended to do this, by virtue of its principle. And therefore I must still illustrate the second factor, which alone decides the case. I have already, more than once, called your attention to the important significance of the Calvinistic doctrine of “common grace”, and of course in this lecture on art I must refer to it again. That which is to he ecclesiastical must bear the stamp of faith, therefore genuine Christian art can only go out from believers. Calvinism, on the contrary, has taught us that all liberal arts are gifts which God imparts promiscuously to believers and to unbelievers, yea, that, as history shows, these gifts have flourished even in a larger measure outside the holy circle. “These radiations of Divine Light,” he wrote, “shone more brilliantly among unbelieving people than among God’s saints.” And this of course quite reverses the proposed order of things. If 217 you limit the higher enjoyment of art to regeneration, then this gift is exclusively the portion of believers, and must bear an ecclesiastical character. In that case it is the outcome of particular grace. But if, at the hand of experience and history, you become persuaded that the highest art-instincts are natural gifts, and hence belong to those excellent graces which, in spite of sin, by virtue of common grace have continued to shine in human nature, it plainly follows that art can inspire both believers and unbelievers, and that God remains Sovereign to impart it, in His good pleasure, alike to Heathen and to Christian nations. This applies not only to art, but to all the natural utterances of human life, and is illustrated by the comparison in early times between Israel and the other nations. As far as holy things are concerned, Israel is chosen, and is not only blessed above all nations, but stands among all nations, isolated In the question of Religion, Israel has not only a larger share, but Israel alone has the truth, and all the other nations, even the Greeks and the Romans, are bent beneath the yoke of falsehood. Christ is not partly of Israel and partly of the nations; He is of Israel alone. Salvation is of the Jews. But just in proportion as Israel shines forth from within the domain of Religion, so is it equally backward when you compare the development of its art, science, politics, commerce and trade to that of the surrounding nations. The building of the Temple required the coming of Hiram from a heathen country to Jerusalem; and Solomon, in whom, after all, was found the Wisdom of God, not only knows that Israel stands 218 behind in architecture and needs help from without, but by his action he publicly shows that he, as the king of the Jews, is in no way ashamed of Hiram’s coming, which he realizes as a natural ordinance of God.

Entretanto, prontamente admito que este resultado teria sido puramente acidental se o Calvinismo não tivesse, ao mesmo tempo, levado a uma interpretação mais profunda da vida humana e deste modo da arte humana. Quando, sob Victor Emmanuel com a ajuda de Garibaldi93, a Itália tornou-se livre, o dia da liberdade também rompeu para os Valdenses no centro e no sul da Itália, mas nem o Re galantuomo, nem Garibaldi, sequer tinham pensado nos Valdenses. Assim, é possível que em virtude de seu princípio, o Calvinismo, em sua luta pela liberdade humana, também tenha cortado o laço que até aqui mantinha a arte como cativa, mas sem ao menos ter pretendido fazê-lo. E por isso, devo ainda ilustrar o segundo fator, o qual resolve o caso sozinho.

Já tenho chamado sua atenção mais de uma vez para o importante significado da doutrina calvinista da “graça comum”, e certamente nesta palestra sobre a arte devo referir-me a ela novamente. Aquilo que deve ser eclesiástico deve trazer a marca da fé, portanto, a genuína arte cristã somente pode sair de crentes. O Calvinismo, ao contrário, nos tem ensinado que todas as artes liberais são dons que Deus confere indiscriminadamente a crentes e a incrédulos, além disso, como a História mostra, que estes dons têm se desenvolvido numa medida até mesmo mais larga fora do círculo santo. “Estas radiações da Luz Divina”, ele escreveu, “brilham mais fulgurosamente entre povos incrédulos do que entre santos de Deus”. E isto, certamente, inverte completamente a ordem proposta das coisas. Se vocês limitam o gozo mais elevado da arte à regeneração, então este dom é exclusivamente a porção dos crentes e deve trazer um caráter eclesiástico. Neste caso ele é o resultado da graça especial. Mas se, à luz da experiência e da História, vocês estão persuadidos de que os mais altos instintos artísticos são dons naturais e por isso pertencem àquelas excelentes graças que, a despeito do pecado, em virtude da graça comum continuam a brilhar na natureza humana, segue-se claramente que a arte pode inspirar tanto crentes como incrédulos, e que Deus continua Soberano ao conferi-la igualmente a nações Pagãs e a Cristãs, a seu bel-prazer.

Isto não se aplica somente a arte, mas a todas as expressões naturais da vida humana, e é ilustrado pela comparação entre Israel e as outras nações no período primitivo. À medida que coisas santas estão envolvidas, Israel é escolhido, e não apenas é abençoado acima de todas as nações, mas permanece isolado entre todas as nações. Na questão da Religião, Israel não somente tem um quinhão maior, mas somente Israel tem a verdade, e todas as outras nações, até mesmo os gregos e os romanos, estão curvadas sob o jugo da mentira. Cristo não é parcialmente de Israel e parcialmente das nações; ele é somente de Israel. A salvação é dos judeus. Mas na mesma proporção em que Israel brilha de dentro para fora no campo da religião, assim é igualmente invertido quando vocês comparam o desenvolvimento de sua arte, ciência, política, comércio e negócio com o das nações vizinhas.

A construção do Templo requereu a vinda de Hirão de um país pagão para Jerusalém; e Salomão, em quem afinal foi encontrada a Sabedoria de Deus, não somente sabia que Israel ficava para trás em matéria de arquitetura e necessitava de ajuda de fora, mas através de sua ação ele publicamente mostrou que, como o rei dos judeus, de modo algum estava envergonhado pela vinda de Hirão, a qual compreende como uma ordenança natural de Deus.

Между тем я с готовностью признаю, что такой исход был бы совершенно случайным, если бы кальвинизм в то же самое время не вел к более глубокому пониманию человеческой жизни, а с нею — и искусства. Когда Гарибальди³ освободил Италию, заря свободы засияла и над вальденсами средней и южной Италии, хотя ни Виктор-Эммануил, ни сам Гарибальди даже не думали о вальденсах. Точно так же в борьбе за права человека кальвинизм, ни в малейшей степени не намереваясь это делать, разорвал узы, которые до той поры держали в плену искусство. Поэтому я должен рассмотреть и второй фактор, который сам по себе оказался решающим. Я уже не раз обращал ваше внимание на кальвинистскую доктрину «общей благодати» и в этой лекции об искусстве должен снова к ней обратиться. То, что относится к церковной сфере, отмечено верою, и потому подлинно христианское искусство могут создавать только верующие. Кальвинизм же учил, что всякое искусство — дар, которым Бог наделил в равной степени и верующих, и неверующих. Более того: как показывает история, дары эти даже в большей степени процветали вне священных границ. «Отблески божественного света, — писал Кальвин, — сияли среди неверующих ярче, чем среди святых Божиих». Конечно, это изменяет предложенный порядок вещей. Если вы ограничиваете высшее наслаждение искусством фактом возрождения, то этот дар — удел одних верующих и должен быть церковным как плод особой благодати. Но если свидетельство опыта и истории убедит вас, что высшая склонность к искусству — естественный дар и, следовательно, относится к тем милостям, которые, несмотря на грех, в силу общей благодати, Бог дарует человеку, отсюда с очевидностью следует, что искусство может вдохновлять и верующих, и неверующих, а Всемогущий по Своему благоволению наделяет им одинаковым образом и язычников, и христиан. Это применимо не только к искусству, но и ко всем естественным проявлениям человеческой жизни, и иллюстрируется сопоставлением в древности Израиля и других народов. В той мере, в какой это касается священного, Израиль был избран, и не только благословен больше всех народов, но и выделен из них. В том, что касается религии, Израиль не только обладает преимуществом, но и один владеет истиной, а все остальные народы, даже греки и римляне, томились под бременем лжи. Христос не происходит отчасти от Израиля, отчасти от других народов; Он — только от Израиля. Спасение — от Иудеев. Но в той же мере, в какой Израиль сиял в религиозной сфере, он был отсталым в искусстве, науке, политике, торговле по сравнению с окружающими его народами. Постройка Храма потребовала, чтобы в Иерусалим прибыл человек из языческой страны; и Соломон, в котором обитала Премудрость Божия, не только знал, что Израиль нуждается в его помощи, но и публично показал, что он, царь Иудеев, не стыдится прихода Хирама, но принимает его помощь как естественное Божие установление.

Welnu, hiermede in overeenstemming, en op grond zoo van het getuigenis der Schrift als van de Historie, is het Calvinisme tot de erkentenis gekomen, dat de ongeloovige volken wel buitenstaan, waar het Heiligdom zich ontsluit, maar dat ze niettemin hun eigen beteekenis in de Historie hebben, dat ze een eigen roeping van Godswege ontvingen, en dat ook hun bestaan als noodzakelijk opgenomen is in het wereldplan. Voor elke uiting van menschelijk leven is een eigen aanleg in bloed en afstamming, er zijn schikkingen, eigen schikkingen ook van lot en gebeurtenis noodig, noodig zelfs een eigen omgeving van de natuur en een eigen invloed van het klimaat. Dit alles was dan ook bij Israël aangelegd op het heilig pand dat het in de Goddelijke openbaring zou ontvangen. Maar was alzoo Israël uitverkoren voor de Religie en den triomf van het Godsrijk, dit belette in het minst niet dat het Grieksche volk door God was uitverkoren voor het wijsgerig leven en de kunstopenbaring, en dat evenzoo de Romeinen van God uitverkoren waren, om ons een klassieke ontwikkeling te geven op het gebied van het recht en den staat. Ook het kunstleven heeft zijn voorloopige ontwikkeling en zijn latere ontplooiing, maar om te krachtiger te kunnen opbloeien moest het ook zijn centrale ontwikkeling tot helder zelfbewustzijn brengen, om de onveranderlijke grondslagen te ontdekken van haar ideëel bestaan. Tot zulk een zelfopenbaring komt zulk een verschijning in het leven slechts éénmaal, en is die openbaring gevonden, dan blijft deze klassiek, toongevend en voor altoos heerschend, en moge de verdere kunstontwikkeling dan al nieuwer vormen en rijker materie zoeken, in het wezen blijft de oorspronkelijke vinding onveranderlijk. Zoo kon het dus niet alleen, maar zoo moest het 158 Calvinisme erkennen dat het Grieksche volk het primordiale kunstvolk bij Godes gratie was geweest, dat de kunst, juist dank zij die klassieke ontwikkeling, een zelfstandige uiting van ons menschelijk leven was gebleken; en dat ze dus wel óók de Religie in zich op had te nemen, maar dat ze daarom nog volstrekt niet, in afhankelijken zin, op den kerkelijken stam, of wilt ge op den stam des geloofs, mocht worden geënt. De Renaissance als terugkeer van de kunst naar haar weer ontdekte grondlijnen deed zich uit dien hoofde aan het Calvinisme voor, niet als een zondig, maar als een van God verordend streven, dat het niet bloot toevallig, maar welbewust en opzettelijk in de hand heeft gewerkt.

So, Calvinism, on the ground both of the Scriptures and of history, has arrived at the confession, that, wherever the Sanctuary discloses itself, all unbelieving nations stand outside, but that nevertheless, in their secular history, they are called by God to a special vocation, and form, by their very existence, an indispensable link in the long chain of phenomena. Every utterance of human life requires a special disposition in blood and in descent, and proper adaptations of lot and incident as well as of natural environment and climatic effects are to contribute to its development. In Israel all this was adapted to the holy heritage which it was to receive in the Divine Revelation. But if Israel was chosen for the sake of Religion, this in no way prevented a parallel election of the Greeks for the domain of philosophy and for the revelations of art, nor of the Romans, for the classical development within the domain of Law and of State. The life of art also has both its provisional development, and its later unfoldings, but in order to insure a more vigorous growth it wanted first of all clear self consciousness in its centrum that once for all the unchangeable foundation- of its ideal existence might be brought to light. Such a phenomenon as art, arrives at this self-revelation once only, and that revelation once granted, remains classical, tone-giving and forever dominant. And although a further art-development may seek newer forms and richer material, the nature of the original find remains the same. Thus Calvinism was not only able, but bound to confess, that, by the grace of God, the Greeks were the primordial nation of art; that owing to this classical Greek development, art conquered its rights of independent existence; and that although it certainly ought to radiate also in the sphere of Religion, it should in nowise be engrafted in a dependent sense upon the ecclesiastical 26 tree, or, if you like, upon the tree of faith. Therefore, being a return of art to her rediscovered fundamental lines, the Renaissance did not present itself to Calvinism as a sinful effort, but as a divinely ordered movement. And as such Calvinism encouraged the Renaissance not by pure accident, but with clear consciousness and definite purpose, in accordance with its deepest principle.

So Calvinism, on the ground both of the Scriptures and of history, has arrived at the confession, that, wherever the Sanctuary discloses itself, all unbelieving nations stand outside, but that nevertheless, in their secular history, they are called by God to a special vocation, and form by their very existence, an indispensable link in the long chain of phenomena. Every utterance of human life requires a special disposition in blood and in descent, and proper adaptations of lot and incident as well as of natural environment and climatic effects are to contribute to its development. In Israel all this was adapted to the holy heritage which it was to receive in the Divine Revelation. But if Israel was chosen for the sake of Religion, this in no way prevented a parallel election of the Greeks for the domain of philosophy and for the revelations of art, nor of the Romans for the classical development within the domain of Law and of State. The life of art also has both its provisional development, and its later unfoldings, but in order to insure a more vigorous growth, it wanted first of all clear self-consciousness in its centrum that, once for all, the unchangeable foundations of its ideal existence might be brought to light. Such a phenomenon as art arrives at this self-revelation once only, and that revelation, once granted to the Greek, remains classical, tone giving and forever dominant. And although a further art-development may seek 219 newer forms and richer material, the nature of the original find remains the same. Thus Calvinism was not only able, but bound, to confess that, by the grace of God, the Greeks were the primordial nation of art; that owing to this classical Greek development, art conquered its right of independent existence; and that although it certainly ought to radiate also in the sphere of Religion, it should in no wise be engrafted in a dependent sense upon the ecclesiastical tree. Therefore, being a return of art to her rediscovered fundamental lines, the Renaissance did not present itself to Calvinism as a sinful effort, but as a divinely ordered movement And as such Calvinism encouraged the Renaissance not by pure accident, but with clear consciousness and definite purpose, in accordance with its deepest principle.

Assim o Calvinismo, tanto sobre a base das Escrituras quanto da História, chegou a confissão de que, onde quer que o Santuário se revele, todas as nações incrédulas ficam fora, mas que apesar disso, em sua história secular elas são chamadas por Deus para uma vocação especial e formam por sua própria existência um elo indispensável na longa série de fenômenos. Toda expressão da vida humana requer uma disposição especial no sangue e na origem e adaptações apropriadas de sorte, e incidente bem como de ambiente natural e efeitos climáticos devem contribuir para seu desenvolvimento. Em Israel tudo isto foi adaptado para a herança santa, que deveria receber na Revelação Divina. Mas se Israel foi escolhido por causa da Religião, isto de modo algum impediu uma eleição paralela dos gregos para o campo da Filosofia e para as revelações da arte, nem dos romanos para o desenvolvimento clássico dentro do campo da Lei e do Estado. A vida da arte também tem tanto seu desenvolvimento provisório quanto seus desdobramentos posteriores, mas a fim de assegurar um crescimento mais vigoroso, precisava antes de mais nada de autoconsciência limpa em seu centro para que, de uma vez por todas, os fundamentos imutáveis de sua existência ideal pudessem ser trazidos à luz.

Um fenômeno como a arte chega a esta auto-revelação apenas uma vez, e esta revelação, uma vez concedida ao grego, mantém-se clássica, dando o tom e dominando para sempre. E embora um desenvolvimento adicional da arte possa procurar formas mais novas e materiais mais ricos, a natureza da descoberta original continua a mesma. Assim, o Calvinismo foi não apenas capaz mas obrigado a confessar que, pela graça de Deus, os gregos eram a nação primordial da arte; que devido a este desenvolvimento Grego clássico, a arte conquistou seu direito de existência independente; e que embora ela certamente deva irradiar-se também na esfera da Religião, de modo algum deveria ser implantada num sentido dependente na árvore eclesiástica. Portanto, sendo um retorno da arte a redescoberta de suas linhas fundamentais, a Renascença não apresenta-se ao Calvinismo como esforço pecaminoso, mas como movimento divinamente ordenado. E como tal, o Calvinismo encorajou a Renascença não por puro acidente, mas com consciência limpa e propósito definido, de acordo com seu princípio mais profundo.

Итак, на основании Писания и истории кальвинизм пришел к тому, что неверующие народы — вне Святилища, но, тем не менее, в светской истории они призваны Богом к особому предназначению и образуют необходимое звено в длинной цепи явлений. Всякая человеческая жизнь связана с особенностями происхождения человека, жизненными обстоятельствами, а также характером естественной среды и климата. В Израиле все это было приспособлено к тому священному наследию, которое он должен был получить в Откровении Божием. Израиль был избран ради религии, но это ни в коей мере не мешает избранию греков ради философии или искусства, римлян — ради классического развития в сфере государства и права. Жизнь искусства имеет и предварительное развитие, и последующую эволюцию; но чтобы обеспечить себе более внушительный рост, она должна в первую очередь полно и ясно осознать самую свою суть, чтобы раз и навсегда выявить неизменные основы своего идеального существования. Такое явление как искусство достигает самооткровения лишь однажды, и откровение это, некогда дарованное грекам, остается классическим и навсегда господствующим. Дальнейшее развитие может искать новые формы и более богатый материал, но природа источника остается прежней. Таким образом, кальвинизм не только смог, но и был обязан признать, что по благодати Божией греки — первая нация в сфере искусства; что благодаря им оно завоевало право на независимое существование; и что хотя оно обязано сиять и в духовной сфере, его нельзя прививать насильно к церковному древу. Возвращая искусство к вновь открытым фундаментальным чертам, Ренессанс был для кальвинизма не греховным, а богоданным. Кальвинисты поощряли его не по чистой случайности, а с ясным сознанием и определенной целью, в согласии со своими глубочайшими принципами.

Er is dus geen sprake van dat het Calvinisme, alleen als ongewild gevolg van zijn verzet tegen de Hiërarchie, tevens de vrijmaking van de kunst zou bevorderd hebben. Veeleer eischte het die vrijmaking en moest het die in eigen kring tot stand brengen, op grond van zijn geheele wereld- en levensbeschouwing. De wereld is niet een verloren planeet, die voortaan alleen dienst doet, om aan de kerk een plaats te beiden waar ze als strijdende kerk vertoeven zal, en de menschheid is niet een doellooze menschenmassa, die alleen dienst doet om de uitverkorenen te doen geboren worden. Integendeel is die wereld het schouwtooneel van Gods machtige werken, en die menschheid een schepping van zijn hand, die, ook afgezien van eigen zaligheid, en van wat de toekomst brengen zal, hier, in dit tijdelijke, een machtig proces doorloopt, en in dat proces van historische ontwikkeling Gods naam verheerlijken moet. Daartoe heeft Hij voor die menschheid allerlei onderscheidene levensuitingen besteld, en onder die levensuitingen neemt ook de kunst een zelfstandige plaats in. Die kunst openbaart ons scheppingsordinantiën, die noch wetenschap, noch staatsbeleid, noch religieus leven, noch zelfs de Religie geven kan. Ze is een plant die groeit en bloeit op eigen wortel, en zonder nu te ontkennen, dat ook deze plant tijdelijk steun en stut kan behoeven, en dat de kerk haar in vroeger dagen dien steun op kostelijke wijze geboden heeft, eischte toch het Calvinistisch beginsel, dat ook die plante der kunst ten leste kracht zou winnen, om, zonder stut, op eigen stam haar kroon omhoog te heffen, en erkende het, dat de wet 159 van existentie en groei voor deze plant der kunst het eerst en het helderst door den Griekschen kunstenaar is ingezien, zoodat deswege alle hoogere kunst steeds weer aan die klassieke ontwikkeling haar zuivere aandrift heeft te ontleenen. Niet, ik kom daar zoo straks op, om bij Griekenland te blijven staan, of ook zonder critiek haar Paganistische verschijning over te nemen. Ook de kunst blijft niet bij haar oorsprong toeven, maar heeft zich steeds rijker te ontwikkelen, en tegelijk bij die rijker ontwikkeling uit te zuiveren wat zich valschelijk in haar opbloeien gemengd had. Alleen maar de wet van haar groei en bloei moet kunstwet blijven, niet van elders haar worden opgelegd, maar uit haar eigen wezen gekend worden, en in die ontbinding van onnatuurlijke en in die aanbinding van natuurlijke banden moest ook voor de kunst de ware vrijheid worden gezocht. En wie nu denken mocht dat deswege het Calvinisme het heilig gebied der Religie aan wetenschap en kunst ontrooven wilde, dien zij gezegd, dat juist het Calvinisme deze beide levensmachten heel ons menschelijk leven wil laten ontvangen. Er moet zijn, een Wetenschap die niet rust eer zij gansch den kosmos heeft doorgedacht. Een Religie die niet stil kan zitten eer ze heel het menschelijk leven doordrongen heeft. Maar zoo dan ook een Kunst die geen enkel terrein des levens versmaadt, en daarom heel het menschelijk leven, en dus ook het nietigste in dit leven, in haar kunstwereld opneemt.

Hence there is no question that, simply as an involuntary result of its opposition to the Hierarchy of Rome, Calvinism should at the same time have encouraged the emancipation of art. On the contrary, it demanded this liberation and was bound to effect it, within its own circle, as a consequence of its world- and life-view. The world after the fall is no lost planet, only destined now to afford the church a place in which to continue her combats, and humanity is no aimless mass of people which only serves the purpose of giving birth to the elect. On the contrary the world now, as well as in the beginning, is the theatre for the mighty works of God, and humanity remains a creation of His hand, which, apart from salvation and from what the future may bring, completes under this present dispensation, here on earth, a mighty process, and in its historical development is to glorify the name of Almighty God. To this end He has ordained for this humanity all sorts of life-utterances, and' among these, art occupies a quite independent place. Art reveals ordinances of creation which neither science, nor politics, nor religious life, nor even revelation can bring to light. She is a plant that grows and blossoms upon her own root, and without denying that this plant may have required the help of a temporary support, and that in early times the church lent this prop in a very excellent way, yet the Calvinistic principle demanded that this plant of art should at length acquire strength to stand alone and vigorously to extend its branches in every direction. And thus Calvinism confessed that, the Greeks having first discovered the laws 27 by which the existence and the growth of this art-plant are governed, therefore remain entitled to bind every further growth and every new impulse of art to their first, their classical development. Not for the sake of stopping short with Greece, or of adopting her Paganistic form without criticism. Art, like Science, cannot afford to tarry at her origin, but must ever develop herself more richly, at the same time purging herself of whatsoever had been falsely intermingled with the earlier plant. Only, the law of her growth and life, once discovered, must remain the fundamental law of art for ever; a law, not imposed upon her from without, but sprung from her own nature. And so, by loosening every unnatural, and cleaving to her natural ties, art must find the inward strength required for the maintenance of her liberty. Calvin therefore does not estrange art, science, and Religion, from one another; on the contrary, what he desires is that all human life shall be permeated by these three vital powers together. There must be a science which will not rest until it has thought out the entire cosmos ; a religion which cannot sit still until she has permeated every sphere of human life ; and so also there must be an Art which, despising no single department of life, adopts, into her splendid world, the whole of human life, Religion included.

Hence there is no question that, simply as an involuntary result of its opposition to the Hierarchy of Rome, Calvinism should at the same time have encouraged the emancipation of art. On the contrary, it demanded this liberation and was bound to effect it, within its own circle, as a consequence of its world- and life-view. The world after the fall is no lost planet, only destined now to afford the Church a place in which to continue her combats; and humanity is no aimless mass of people which only serves the purpose of giving birth to the elect. On the contrary, the world now, as well as in the beginning, is the theater for the mighty works of God and humanity remains a creation of His hand, which, apart from salvation, completes under this present dispensation, here on earth, a mighty process, and in 220 its historical development is to glorify the name of Almighty God. To this end He has ordained for this humanity all sorts of life-utterances, and among these, art occupies a quite independent place. Art reveals ordinances of creation which neither science, nor politics, nor religious life, nor even revelation can bring to light. She is a plant that grows and blossoms upon her own root, and without denying that this plant may have required the help of a temporary support, and that in early times the Church lent this prop in a very excellent way, yet the Calvinistic principle demanded that this plant of earth should at length acquire strength to stand alone and vigorously to extend its branches in every direction. And thus Calvinism confessed that, inasmuch as the Greeks had first discovered the laws by which the growth of the art-plant is governed, they therefore remain entitled to bind every further growth and every new impulse of art to their first, their classical development, not for the sake of stopping short with Greece, or of adopting her Paganistic form without criticism. Art, like Science, cannot afford to tarry at her origin, but must ever develop herself more richly, at the same time purging herself of whatsoever had been falsely intermingled with the earlier plant. Only, the law of her growth and life, when once discovered, must remain the fundamental law of art for ever; a law, not imposed upon her from without, but sprung from her own nature. And so, by loosening every unnatural tie, and cleaving to every tie that is natural, art must find the inward strength required for the maintenance of her liberty. Calvin therefore does not estrange art, science, 221 and religion, from one another; on the contrary, what he desires is that all human life shall be permeated by these three vital powers together. There must be a Science which will not rest until it has thought out the entire cosmos; a Religion which cannot sit still until she has permeated every sphere of human life; and so also there must be an Art which, despising no single department of life adopts, into her splendid world, the whole of human life, religion included.

Por isso, não há problema que simplesmente como um resultado involuntário de sua oposição à Hierarquia de Roma, o Calvinismo ao mesmo tempo tenha encorajado a emancipação da arte. Pelo contrário, exigiu esta libertação e foi obrigado a realizá-la dentro de seu próprio círculo, como conseqüência de sua biocosmovisão. O mundo depois da queda não é um planeta perdido, agora destinado apenas a fornecer para a Igreja um lugar onde continuar seus combates; e a humanidade não é uma massa de pessoas sem rumo que apenas serve ao propósito de dar à luz ao eleito. Pelo contrário, o mundo agora, tanto quanto no princípio, é o teatro para as poderosas obras de Deus, e a humanidade ainda é uma criação de sua mão, que, à parte da salvação, sob esta presente dispensação completa aqui sobre a terra um poderoso processo, e em seu desenvolvimento histórico deve glorificar o nome do Deus Todo-Poderoso. Para este fim, ele ordenou para esta humanidade todo tipo de expressões de vida, e entre estas a arte ocupa um lugar completamente independente. Ela revela ordenanças da criação que nem a ciência, nem a política, nem a vida religiosa, nem mesmo a revelação podem trazer à luz.

A arte é uma planta que cresce e floresce sobre sua própria raiz, e sem negar que esta planta possa ter requerido a ajuda de um suporte temporário, e que no começo dos tempos a Igreja deu este apoio de uma forma excelente, todavia o princípio calvinista exigiu que esta planta da terra deveria finalmente adquirir força para ficar de pé sozinha e vigorosamente estender seus ramos em todas as direções. E assim, o Calvinismo confessou que, como os gregos tinham descoberto primeiro as leis que governam o crescimento da planta da arte, eles continuam autorizados, portanto, a vincular todo crescimento adicional e cada novo impulso da arte a seu primeiro, seu desenvolvimento clássico, não com o fim de limitar-se a Grécia, ou adotar sua forma Paganista sem crítica.

A arte, como a Ciência, não pode permitir-se demorar em sua origem, mas deve desenvolver-se sempre mais ricamente, ao mesmo tempo purificando-se de tudo que falsamente foi miscigenado com a antiga planta. Quando uma vez descoberta a lei de seu crescimento e vida, somente ela deve continuar a lei fundamental da arte para sempre; uma lei não imposta sobre ela de fora mas nascida de sua própria natureza. E assim, libertando-se de todo laço artificial e apegando-se a todo laço que é natural, a arte deve encontrar a força interior requerida para a manutenção de sua liberdade. Por isso, Calvino não separa a arte, a ciência e a religião uma da outra; pelo contrário, o que ele deseja é que toda vida humana esteja impregnada por estes três poderes vitais juntos. Deve haver uma Ciência que não descansará até ter pensado profundamente em todo o cosmos; uma Religião que ainda não pode sentar-se até ter impregnado cada esfera da vida humana; e assim também deve haver uma Arte que, não desprezando nenhum departamento da vida adota em seu esplêndido mundo toda a vida humana, inclusive a religião.

Поэтому нельзя сказать, что кальвинизм способствовал освобождению искусства лишь косвенно, борясь с Римской церковью. Напротив, он требовал этого освобождения и был призван осуществить его, в пределах его собственных границ, как следствие своего мировоззрения. Мир после грехопадения — не погибшая планета, годная лишь для того, чтобы предоставить Церкви поле сражения; человечество — не бесцельное собрание людей, которое служит только порождению избранных. Мир, как и вначале, — театр могущественных деяний Божиих, и человечество — Его творение, которое, независимо от того, спасено ли оно или нет, осуществляет великое дело здесь на земле, и в своем историческом развитии прославляет имя Божие. С этой целью Он установил для человечества разные формы самовыражения, и среди них искусство играет совершенно независимую роль. Оно выявляет то, чего не могут явить свету ни наука, ни политика, ни религиозная жизнь, ни даже откровение. Можно сказать, что оно произрастает и цветет на своем собственном корне. Конечно, оно иногда нуждается в поддержке, и в ранние времена Церковь превосходно предоставляла ему подпорки, но кальвинистский принцип требовал, чтобы это земное растение научилось держаться самостоятельно и мощно простирать свои ветви в разные стороны. Кальвинизм признавал, что, поскольку греки первыми открыли законы, которые управляют искусством, они по-прежнему полномочны привязывать дальнейший рост и новый импульс в искусстве к его первому, классическому развитию, но не ради того, чтобы ограничить развитие искусства Грецией, без критики принимая ее языческие воззрения. Искусство, как и наука, не может задерживаться на начальной стадии, оно должно развиваться, становиться сильнее, в то же самое время очищая себя от всего, что прилепилось к нему извне. Некогда открытый закон его роста и жизни должен раз и навсегда оставаться основным законом, не навязанным ему извне, а происшедшим из его собственной природы. Таким образом, разрывая всякую неестественную связь и прилепляясь ко всякой естественной связи, искусство должно найти внутреннюю силу, которая нужна для утверждения его же свободы. Поэтому Кальвин не отчуждал искусство, науку и религию друг от друга; напротив, он хотел, чтобы вся человеческая жизнь пропиталась этими тремя жизненными силами. Должна существовать именно такая наука, которая не успокоится, пока не осмыслит все мироздание; именно такая религия, которая не успокоится, пока не пропитает всю человеческую жизнь; и, наконец, должно быть искусство, которое, не презирая ни одну область жизни, охватит всю человеческую жизнь, включая и религию.

Vorme die rijke uitbreiding van het gebied der kunst mij tevens den gereeden overgang tot de laatste opmerking, waarvoor ik uw aandacht vraag, t.w. dat het Calvinisme ook feitelijk en in concreten zin de ontwikkeling van de kunsten bevorderd heeft. Hierbij nu behoeft wel nauwelijks gezegd, dat het Calvinisme ook op kunstgebied niet den toovenaar kon spelen, en niet anders werken kon, dan met natuurlijke gegevens. Dat de Italiaan een zangeriger keel ontving dan de Schot, en de Duitscher door stormachtiger zangdrift beheerscht wordt dan een Nederlander, zijn onloochenbare gegevens, waarmeê de kunst evengoed onder Romes heerschappij als onder de heerschappij van het Calvinisme te rekenen had. 160 Reden waarom het noch logisch, noch naar eerlijke rechtspraak is, zoo men aan het Calvinisme verwijt, wat rechtstreeks voortvloeit uit het verschil in volksaard. Even weinig kan het bevreemden, dat het Calvinisme in onze Noordelijke landen geen marmer, porphyr of arduinsteen uit den grond kon tooveren, en dat deswege de bouw- en beeldhouwkunst, die rijke natuursteen als stoffe behoeven, zich gereeder ontwikkelden in landen waar de steengroeve dezen schat uitlevert, dan in een land als Nederland, dat rust op klei en slib. Dichtkunst, toonkunst en schilderkunst, de drie geheel vrije en van alle natuurlijke gegevens meest onafhankelijke kunsten, zijn uit dien hoofde de eenige, die hier in aanmerking komen. Niet alsof onze stadhuisbouw geen eigen plaats der eere onder de scheppingen der architectoniek zou innemen. Leuven en Middelburg, Antwerpen en Amsterdam weten nog te getuigen van wat eens Nederlandsche kunst uit steen gewrocht heeft. En ook wie Quellinus’ en De Keyzers beelden te Antwerpen en op het graf van Willem den Zwijger mocht genieten, loochent de kunstvaardigheid van deze mannen van den beitel niet. Maar hier staat tegenover, dat onze stadhuisbouw lang vóór het Calvinisme optrad en ook in zijn latere ontwikkeling geen enkelen trek vertoont, die aan het Calvinisme herinnert. Het Calvinisme dat krachtens zijn beginsel noch cathedralen stichtte, noch paleizen bouwde, noch om amphitheaters riep, kon geen machtige architectonische scheppingen doen verrijzen, en kon dus evenmin drang wekken om de ledige nissen van zoo reusachtige gebouwen te bevolken met scheppingen der beeldhouwkunst. De verdienste van het Calvinisme voor de kunst ligt dan ook elders, niet in de objectieve, maar uitsluitend in de meer subjectieve kunsten, die zonder den steun van millioenen schats en zonder hulp van de marmergroeve, vrij opbloeien uit ’s menschen geest. Van de dichtkunst zwijg ik daarbij. Anders toch zou ik in de eerste plaats op onze Nederlandsche Dichtkunst moeten wijzen, en reeds het eng beperkt gebied onzer taal sloot onze dichtkunst van de wereld af. Wat uitnemende dichters in meerdere scholen te gelijk ook onder ons zijn opgestaan, hun invloed moest nationaal begrensd blijven en kon deswege op de dichtkunst als wereldverschijnsel niet inwerken. 161 Dit voorrecht is slechts voor zeer enkele volken weggelegd, wier taal voertuig werd voor het internationaal verkeer. Maar is het taalgebied voor kleinere volken nationaal beperkt, het oog is internationaal, en de muziek die het oor opvangt, wordt door het hart van al wie mensch heet verstaan. En daarom wie den invloed van het Calvinisme op de ontwikkeling en de bloei der kunst wil naspeuren, heeft in internationalen zin zich tot dit tweetal kunsten te bepalen, en zich af te vragen wat het Calvinisme én voor de schilderkunst én voor de wereld der tonen is geweest.

Let this suggestion of the wide extension of the domain of art introduce my last point, viz., that Calvinism has also act dully and In a concrete sense ad a meet] the development of the arts. It scarcely needs a reminder that in the realm of art Calvinism was not able to play the role of a Sorcerer, and could only work with natural data. That the Italian has a more tuneful voice than the Scot, and that the German is carried away by a more passionate impulse of song than the Netherlander, are simple data with which art had to reckon, under Roman supremacy, as 28 well as under that of Calvinism. An undeniable fact, which explains why it is neither logical nor honest to reproach Calvinism for that which is merely due to the differences of national character. The truth is equally plain that, in the Northern countries of Europe, Calvinism was not able to produce, as by magic, marble, porphyry or freestone, from the ground, and that therefore the arts of sculpture and architecture, which require rich, natural stone, were more readily developed in those countries where quarries abound, than in a country such as the Netherlands, where the ground consists of clay and mire. Poetry, music, and painting, therefore, can alone be considered here, as the three free arts that are most independent of all natural data. This does not imply that the Flemish and Dutch city -hall fails to hold a position of honor all its own among the creations of architecture. Louvain and Middleburg, Antwerp and Amsterdam still bear witness to what Dutch art wrought in stone. And he who has seen the statues in Antwerp and at the tomb of William the Silent, carved by Quellinus and by De Keyzers, does not question the ability of our artists of the chisel. But this is subject to the objection that the style of our City-Hall was found long before Calvinism made its appearance in the Netherlands, and that, even in its later development, it exhibits no single feature that can remind one of Calvinism. By virtue of its principle Calvinism built no cathedrals, no palaces and no amphitheatres and was unable to erect mighty piles of architecture, and equally unable to populate the vacant niches of these gigantic buildingsWvith sculptured ornaments.

Indeed, the merits of Calvinism, with respect to art, are to be found elsewhere. Not in the objective, but exclusively in the more subjective arts which, not depending upon the patronage of wealth and not in want of the marble quarry, have their spontaneous rise in the human mind. Of poetry I make no mention, in this connection. The narrow bounds 29 within which our language is confined, have excluded our poetry from the world at large, and whatever excellent schools of poets may have flourished among us, their influence necessarily remained confined to the Netherlands, and, therefore, they were not ahle to affect poetry as a world-phenomenon. This privilege is only reserved for those larger nations, whose language, being spoken by millions and millions, therefore becomes a vehicle for international intercourse. But if the province of language for smaller nations is limited, the ege is international, and music heard by the ear is understood in eveiy heart. In order, therefore, that we may trace the influence of Calvinism upon the development and the welfare of art, we must limit ourselves, in the international sense, to the two subjective and independent arts, those of painting and music.

Let this suggestion of the wide extension of the domain of art introduce my last point, viz., that Calvinism has also actually and in a concrete sense advanced the development of the arts. It scarcely needs a reminder that, in the realm of art, Calvinism was not able to play the role of a sorcerer, and could only work with natural data. That the Italian has a more tuneful voice than the Scot, and that the German is carried away by a more passionate impulse of song than the Netherlander, are simple data with which art had to reckon, under Roman supremacy, as well as under that of Calvinism. An undeniable fact, which explains why it is neither logical nor honest to reproach Calvinism for that which is merely due to the differences of national character. The truth is equally plain that, in the Northern countries of Europe, Calvinism was not able to produce, as by magic, marble, porphyry or free-stone, from the ground, and that therefore the arts of sculpture and architecture, which require rich, natural stone, were more readily developed 222 in those countries where quarries abound, than in a country such as the Netherlands, where the ground consists of clay and mire. Poetry, music, and painting, therefore, can alone be considered here as the three free arts that are most independent of all natural data. This does not imply that the Flemish and Dutch city hall fails to hold a position of honor all its own among the creations of architecture. Louvain and Middleburg, Antwerp and Amsterdam still bear witness to what Dutch art wrought in stone. And he who has seen the statues in Antwerp and at the tomb of William the Silent, carved by Quellinus and by De Keyzers, does not question the ability of our artists of the chisel. But this is subject to the objection that the style of our City Hall was found long before Calvinism made its appearance in the Netherlands, and that, even in its later development, it exhibits no single feature that can remind one of Calvinism. By virtue of its principle Calvinism built no cathedrals, no palaces and no amphitheatres, and was unable to populate the vacant niches of these gigantic buildings with sculptured ornaments.

Indeed, the merits of Calvinism, with respect to art, are to be found elsewhere. Not in the objective, but exclusively in the more subjective arts which, not depending upon the patronage of wealth and not in want of the marble quarry, have their spontaneous rise in the human mind. Of poetry I can make no further mention in this connection. To that purpose I should have to disclose to you the treasures of our own Dutch Literature, for the narrow bounds 223 within which our Netherland language is confined have excluded our poetry from the world at large. This privilege of making their poetry a world phenomenon is only reserved for those larger nations, whose language, being spoken by millions and millions, becomes a vehicle for international intercourse. But if the province of languagefor smaller nations is limited, the eye is international, and music heard by the ear is understood in every heart. In order, therefore, that we may trace the influence of Calvinism upon the development and the welfare of art, we must limit ourselves, in the international sense, to the two subjective and independent arts, those of painting and music.

Deixem esta sugestão sobre a grande extensão do campo da arte introduzir meu último ponto, a saber, que o Calvinismo também tem realmente e num sentido concreto promovido o desenvolvimento das artes. Apenas é necessário lembrar que, no reino da arte, ele não foi capaz de fazer o papel de um feiticeiro, e somente poderia trabalhar com elementos naturais. Que o italiano tem uma voz mais melodiosa do que o escocês, e que o alemão é arrebatado por um impulso mais apaixonado pelo canto do que o holandês, são elementos básicos com os quais a arte deve contar, sob a supremacia Romana bem como sob a do Calvinismo. Um fato inegável, que explica porque não é nem lógico nem honesto repreender o Calvinismo por aquilo que simplesmente é devido às diferenças de caráter nacional. Igualmente clara é a verdade de que, nos países do Norte da Europa, ele não foi capaz de fazer a terra produzir, como por mágica, mármore, pórfiro94 ou pedra sabão, e que por isso as artes da escultura e da arquitetura, que requerem valiosas pedras naturais, foram mais prontamente desenvolvidas naqueles países onde abundavam pedreiras do que num país tal como a Holanda, onde a terra consiste de argila e lamaçal. Portanto, somente podem ser consideradas aqui a poesia, a música e a pintura, como as três artes livres que são mais independentes de todos os elementos naturais.

Isto não significa que as Prefeituras flamenga (belga) e holandesa falharam em manter uma posição de honra própria delas entre as criações de arquitetura. Louvain e Middleburg, Antuérpia e Amsterdã ainda dão testemunho do que a arte holandesa fez em pedra. E aquele que vê as estátuas em Antuérpia, e na sepultura de William o Silencioso, esculpidas por Quellinus e por De Heyzers, não questiona a habilidade de nossos artistas do formão. Porém, isto está sujeito à objeção de que o estilo de nossa Prefeitura foi construído muito antes do Calvinismo surgir na Holanda, e que, mesmo em seu desenvolvimento posterior, ela não exibe um único traço que possa fazer alguém lembrar do dele. Em virtude de seu princípio, o Calvinismo não construiu catedrais, nem palácios, nem anfiteatros, e foi incapaz de povoar com ornamentos esculpidos os nichos vagos destas gigantescas construções.

De fato, os méritos do Calvinismo, no que diz respeito a arte, devem ser encontrados noutro lugar. Não nas artes objetivas, mas exclusivamente nas artes mais subjetivas que, não dependendo do patrocínio da riqueza nem carecendo de pedreira de mármore, tem sua origem espontânea na mente humana. Em relação à poesia, não posso fazer nenhuma menção adicional. Com que propósito deveria revelar a vocês os tesouros de nossa própria literatura holandesa, pois os reduzidos limites dentro dos quais nosso idioma holandês está confinado excluíram nossa poesia do mundo em geral. Este privilégio de fazer de sua poesia um fenômeno mundial é reservado somente para aquelas nações maiores, cujo idioma, sendo falado por milhões e milhões, torna-se um veículo de comunicação internacional. Mas se o território do idioma é limitado a nações muito pequenas, o olho é internacional, e a música escutada pelo ouvido é entendida em cada coração. Portanto, a fim de que possamos traçar a influência do Calvinismo sobre o desenvolvimento e o bem-estar da arte, devemos limitar-nos, no sentido internacional, às duas artes subjetivas e independentes, a pintura e a música.

Пусть эти слова будут вступлением к моему последнему пункту. Кальвинизм действительно и самым конкретным образом способствовал развитию искусства. Едва ли надо напоминать, что он не мог играть роль волшебника, а мог работать только с естественными данными. Итальянцы более музыкальны, чем шотландцы, а немцы больше любят петь, чем голландцы, но это просто данность, с которой искусство должно считаться и под римским владычеством, и при кальвинизме. Это — неоспоримый факт, объясняющий, почему нелогично и нечестно упрекать кальвинизм в том, что связано лишь с различиями в национальном характере. Очевидно, что в северных странах Европы кальвинизм не мог произвести, словно по волшебству, мрамор, порфир или благородный камень, и потому скульптура и архитектура были больше развиты в тех странах, где все это — в достатке, чем в болотистых и глинистых Нидерландах. Только поэзию, музыку и живопись можно считать наименее зависимыми от природных условий. Это не значит, что фламандская или голландская ратуша не может занимать почетное место среди архитектурных сооружений. Лувен и Мидделбург, Антверпен и Амстердам показывают, что голландское искусство создало из камня. Тот, кто видел статуи в Антверпене и могилу Вильгельма Молчаливого, сооруженную Квеллинием и де Кейзерсом, не сомневается в способностях наших мастеров резца. Однако нередко говорят, что стиль нашей ратуши был известен задолго до того, как кальвинизм появился в Голландии, и что даже в своем позднем развитии этот стиль не выказывает ни одной специфической кальвинистской черты. Кальвинизм в силу своего принципа не строил ни кафедральных соборов, ни дворцов, ни амфитеатров, и не был способен заполнить скульптурами пустующие ниши этих гигантских строений.

Заслугу кальвинизма перед искусством надо бы искать не в объективных, а в исключительно субъективных искусствах, которые не зависят от опеки богатства, не нуждаются в залежах мрамора и спонтанно возникают в человеческом сознании. О стихах я говорить не стану, ибо тогда мне пришлось бы открыть вам богатства нашей голландской словесности, поскольку тесные границы языка исключили нашу поэзию из достояния всего мира. Привилегия создания поэзии, являющейся всемирным достоянием, дана лишь тем народам, чей язык, будучи используемым миллионами, становится средством межнационального общения. Но если язык небольших наций далеко не всем известен, то зрение не имеет национальных границ, и музыку, воспринимаемую слухом, понимает каждое сердце. Чтобы проследить влияние кальвинизма на развитие искусства, ограничим себя двумя субъективными и независимыми его видами — живописью и музыкой.

En dan geldt voor beide deze kunsten deze ééne gedachte, dat ze, eer het Calvinisme optrad, hoog boven het volksleven zweefden, en eerst onder den invloed van het Calvinisme tot het rijke volksleven zijn afgedaald. Van de muziek toon ik u dat in het slot mijner lezing opzettelijk aan, en van wat de schilderkunst aangaat kan ik volstaan met de herinnering aan wat in de zestiende en de zeventiende eeuw door de Nederlandsche kunstschool met penseel en naald getooverd is. Rembrandts naam alleen roept u hier een wereld van kunstschatten voor den geest. Nog wedijveren de musea van alle landen en werelddeelen om elkander tegen ongelooflijke sommen gelds wat er uit die schatten vrij komt, af te snoepen. Zelfs de beursman in Wallstreet heeft eerbied voor een kunstschool, wier oogst zoo hoog loopend kapitaal vertegenwoordigt. En nu nog zoeken de uitnemendste schilders hun motief en hun kunstrichting in wat destijds als geheel nieuwe kunstschepping de wereld verbaasd heeft. Natuurlijk moet ge daarbij niet vragen of al deze schilders persoonlijk van onberispelijke Calvinistische belijdenis waren. Ook in de schilderschool, die onder Romes invloed, aan de onze voorafging, waren de „bons Catholiques” vaak zeldzaam. Zulk een geestesinvloed werkt niet persoonlijk, maar drukt zijn stempel af op omgeving en samenleving, op de wereld van gewaarwordingen, van voorstellingen en gedachten, en het is uit dit geheel van impressies dat zulk een kunstschool geboren werd. En zoo nu beschouwd is de tegenstelling met het verleden in de Nederlandsche Schilderschool onmiskenbaar. Het volk telde eertijds niet meê, meê telde alleen wie hoog boven het volksleven 162 uitstak, de hooge wereld der kerk en de hooge wereld van ridders en vorsten. Maar sinds was het volk mondig geworden, en het is onder de auspiciën van het Calvinisme dat het als profetie van democratisch leven der nieuwere tijden, het eerst deze mondigheid geproclameerd heeft. Het huisgezin hield op een annexe van de kerk te zijn, en trad in zijn zelfstandige beteekenis te voorschijn. Onder den glans der algemeene genade bleek ook het buitenkerkelijke leven hooge belangrijkheid en alzijdig kunstmotief te bezitten. Na eeuwenlang onder den indruk van het hoogere te hebben weggescholen, kwam het gewone menschenleven in al zijn nuchtere werkelijkheid, als een nieuwe wereld uit zijn schuilhoek te voorschijn. Het werd één breede emancipatie van ons gewone aardsche leven, en de vrijheidszin die hiermeê het hart der volken veroverde, had er lust in te genieten van zijn eertijds zoo blindelings verwaarloosden schat. Zelfs Taine ¹⁵⁾ heeft dezen zegen die van den Calvinistischen vrijheidszin naar het kunstgebied uitging, geroemd, en Carrière ¹⁶⁾ die zelf evenmin Calvinist was, roept het luide uit, hoe alleen het Calvinisme in staat was, om voor de vrije schoonheid den akker om te ploegen, waarop ze bloeien zou.

Now of both these arts it is to be stated that, before the days of Calvinism, they soared high above the common life of the Nations, and that only under the < 'alvinistic influence did the}' descend to the so much richer life of the people. As regards painting, just recall the productions of Dutch art by brush and etching-needle in the 16th and 17th centuries. Rembrandt's name alone is here sufficient to invoke a whole world of art-treasures to rise before your mind's eye. The museums of every country and continent still vie with each other, to the utmost, in their efforts to obtain some specimen of his work. Even a broker has respect for an art-school whose returns represent so vast a capital. And even in our days the masters all over the world are still borrowing their most effectual motives and their best art-tendencies from what, at that time, demanded the world's admiration as an entirely new school of painting. Of course this does not say that all these painters were personally staunch Calvinists. In the earlier art-school, which flourished under the influence of Rome the "bon Catholiques" were also very rare. Such influences do not operate personally, but put their 30 impress upon surroundings and society, upon the world of perceptions, of representations and of thought, and as a result of these various impressions an art-school makes its appearance. And, taken in this sense, the antithesis between the past and the present in the school of Dutch art is unmistakable. Before this period, no account was taken of the people, they only were considered worthy of notice who were superior to the common man, vis., the high world of the church and of the priests, of knights and princes. But, since then, the people had come of age, and under the auspices of Calvinism, the art of painting, prophetic of a democratic life of later times, was the first to proclaim the people's maturity. The family ceased to be an annex to the church, and asserted its standing in its independent significance. By the light of common grace it was seen that the non-churchly life w T as also possessed of high importance and of an all sided art-motive. Having been overshadowed for many centuries by class-distinctions, the common life of man came out of its hiding-place like a new world, in all its sober reality. It was the broad emancipation of our ordinary earthly life, and the instinct for liberty, which thereby captured the heart of the nations and inspired them with delight in the enjoyment of treasures so long blindly neglected. Even Taine has sounded the praises of the blessing, which went forth from the Calvinistic love of liberty to the realm of art, and Carriere, who himself was equally far from sympathizing with Calvinism, loudly proclaims that Calvinism alone was able to plow the field on which free art could flourish.

Now of both these arts it is to be stated that, before the days of Calvinism, they soared high above the common life of the Nations, and that only under the Calvinistic influence did they descend to the so much richer life of the people. As regards painting, just recall the productions of Dutch art by brush and etching-needle in the 16th and 17th centuries. Rembrandt’s name alone is here sufficient to summon a whole world of art-treasures before your mind’s eye. The museums of every country and continent still vie with each other, to the utmost, in their effort to obtain some specimen of his work. Even your brokers have respect for an art-school whose returns represent so vast a capital. And even in our days the masters all over the world are still borrowing their most effectual motives and their best art-tendencies from what, at that time, demanded the world’s admiration as an entirely new school of painting. Of course this does not say that all these painters were 224 personally staunch Calvinists. In the earlier art-school, which flourished under the influence of Rome, the “bon Catholiques” were also very rare. Such influences do not operate personally, but put their impress upon surroundings and society, upon the world of perceptions, of representations and of thought; and as a result of these various impressions an art-school makes its appearance. And, taken in this sense, the antithesis between the past and the present in the school of Dutch art is unmistakable. Before this period, no account was taken of the people; they only were considered worthy of notice who were superior to the common man, viz., the high world of the Church and of the priests, of knights and princes. But, since then, the people had come of age, and under the auspices of Calvinism, the art of painting, prophetic of a democratic life of later times, was the first to proclaim the people’s maturity. The family ceased to be an annex to the Church, and asserted its standing in its independent significance. By the light of common grace it was seen that the non-churchly life was also possessed of high importance and of an all-sided art-motive. Having been overshadowed for many centuries by class-distinctions, the common life of man came out of its hiding-place like a new world, in all its sober reality. It was the broad emancipation of our ordinary earthly life, and the instinct for liberty, which thereby captured the heart of the nations and inspired them with delight in the enjoyment of treasures so long blindly neglected. Even Taine has sounded the praises of the blessing, which went forth from the Calvinistic love of liberty 225 to the realm of art, and Carrière, who himself was equally far from sympathizing with Calvinism, loudly proclaims that Calvinism alone was able to plough the field on which free art could flourish.

Sobre estas artes deve ser declarado que, antes dos dias do Calvinismo, elas pairavam muito acima da vida comum das nações, e que somente sob a influência do Calvinismo elas desceram para a vida muito mais rica do povo. Em relação à pintura, basta recordar as produções da arte holandesa através do pincel e do bico de pena nos séculos 16 e 17. É suficiente aqui o nome de Rembrandt para despertar diante de sua imaginação todo um mundo de tesouros de arte. Os museus de cada país e continente ainda competem ao máximo um com o outro, em seus esforços para obter algum exemplar de sua obra. Até mesmo seus investidores tem apreço por uma escola de arte que represente tão vastos retornos financeiros.

Mesmo em nossos dias por todo o mundo os mestres ainda tomam emprestado seus mais eficientes motivos e suas melhores tendências artísticas do que, naquele tempo, exigiu a admiração do mundo como uma escola de pintura inteiramente nova. Certamente isto não quer dizer que todos estes pintores foram pessoalmente calvinistas leais. Na antiga escola de arte, que prosperou sob a influência de Roma, os “bon Catholiques” também eram muito raros. Tais influências não operam pessoalmente, mas colocam sua impressão sobre o ambiente e sociedade, sobre o mundo das percepções, das representações e do pensamento; e como um resultado destas várias impressões surge uma escola de arte.

Tomada neste sentido, a antítese entre o passado e o presente na escola de arte holandesa é inconfundível. Antes deste período, nenhum valor era dado ao povo; somente eram considerados dignos de nota aqueles que eram superiores ao homem comum, a saber, o elevado mundo da Igreja e dos sacerdotes, dos cavaleiros e príncipes. Mas, desde então, o povo atingiu a maioridade, e sob os auspícios do Calvinismo a arte da pintura, profetizadora de uma vida democrática de épocas posteriores, foi a primeira a proclamar a maturidade do povo. A família deixou de ser um anexo para a Igreja e declarou esta posição em seu significado independente.

Através da luz da graça comum foi visto que a vida não eclesiástica também possuía grande importância e uma multifacetada motivação artística. Tendo estado obscurecida por muitos séculos pela distinção de classes, a vida do homem comum saiu de seu esconderijo como um novo mundo, em toda sua solene realidade. Foi a ampla emancipação de nossa vida terrena ordinária, e o instinto por liberdade, que de tal modo capturou o coração das nações e as inspirou com o deleite no gozo de tesouros tão cegamente negado. Até mesmo Taine tem entoado os louvores da bênção que saiu do amor calvinista pela liberdade para o reino da arte, e Carrière, que por si mesmo estava igualmente longe de simpatizar-se com o Calvinismo, ruidosamente proclama que somente ele foi capaz de abrir o campo sobre o qual a arte livre poderia prosperar.

Надо сказать, что до появления кальвинизма они высоко парили над повседневной жизнью народов и только под его влиянием снизошли до значительно обогатившейся жизни простых людей. Что касается живописи, вспомните о голландском мастерстве в использовании кисти и гравировальной иглы в XVI и XVII столетиях. Имени одного Рембрандта достаточно, чтобы представить вашему взору целый мир сокровищ. Музеи всех стран и континентов соревнуются друг с другом, пытаясь получить хоть какие-то его творения. Даже ваши маклеры почитают художественную школу, доход от которой столь значителен. Мастера всего мира все еще заимствуют самые захватывающие темы и самые лучшие направления у тех, кто в свое время вызывал всемирное восхищение, поражая своей новизной. Конечно, это не значит, что все эти художники были убежденными кальвинистами. Ведь и в прежних художественных школах, которые процветали под влиянием Рима, «bon Catholiques» (добрых католиков) тоже было немного. Такое влияние не сказывается непосредственно на личном уровне, оно накладывает отпечаток на окружение и общество, на мир восприятий, представлений и мысли; и, как плод различных воздействий, появляется определенная художественная школа. В этом смысле контраст между прошлым и настоящим в голландской школе неоспорим. До этого времени о простом народе не говорили, считая достойными внимания лишь тех, кто выше него, то есть мир Церкви и священников, рыцарей и князей. С той поры народ повзрослел, и под покровительством кальвинизма искусство живописи, предрекающее демократическую жизнь грядущих времен, первым провозгласило совершеннолетие народа. Семья перестала быть придатком Церкви и утвердила независимую значимость своего положения в обществе. В свете общей благодати стало видно, что нецерковная жизнь тоже имеет большое значение и вполне может стать объектом искусства. В течение многих веков невидимая в силу классовых различий повседневная жизнь простого человека вышла из тени, подобно новому миру, во всей его здравой действительности. Широкая эмансипация повседневной, земной жизни и инстинкт свободы покорили сердца, вдохновляя их к обладанию сокровищами, которыми столь долго пренебрегали. Даже Тэн воздал хвалу благословению, которое родилось из кальвинистской любви к свободе и пришло в мир искусства, а Каррьер, тоже далекий от симпатий к кальвинизму, громогласно провозгласил, что только кальвинизм был способен вспахать поле, на котором может процветать свободное искусство.

Zelfs is meer dan ééns opgemerkt hoe de rijke gedachte eener Uitverkiezing uit louter genade er het hare toe bijdroeg, om het oog van den kunstenaar voor de belangwekkende beteekenis van het kleine en schijnbaar nietige te ontsluiten. Zag God niet aan wat voor oogen is, maar het hart, lag hierin dan geen vingerwijzing voor den kunstenaar, om het gewone en het alledaagsche te bespieden, onder dit alledaagsche de bewegingen en roerselen van het menschelijk hart na te speuren, en het ideale dat hierin school met zijn kunstzin te grijpen, om straks met de kunst van zijn penseel voor heel de wereld zichtbaar te maken wat zijn kunstzin er in ontdekt had? Zelfs de dwaasheid, en tot het drastische in dit menschelijk leven toe, werd nu, omdat het toch uit dat wondere, zij het al bedorvene menschelijk hart opkwam, motief voor kunstreproductie. Den mensch moest 163 ook het beeld zijner verdwaasdheid vertoond worden of hij van zijn verdwazing zich mocht afwenden. Had men voorheen uitsluitend de geidealiseerde gestalten van profeten en apostelen, van heiligen en priesters op het doek gebracht, als God den gemeenen poorter en den daglooner verkoor, moest ook de kop, de figuur, geheel de wezensuitdrukking van den man uit het volk gaan boeien en de menschelijke persoonlijkheid in alle rangen en standen worden overgebracht op het doek. En zoo ook, had men vroeger aller blik èn volstandig èn eeniglijk gericht op het lijden van den Man van smarten, nu ontwaarde men dat er een lijden ook in de gemeene ellende doorworsteld werd, hetwelk de interessantste mysteriën van het menschelijk hart deed uitkomen en ons het breede kader des lijdens toonde, dat ons in nog heiliger diepte de geheel eenige beteekenis van Golgotha deed verstaan. Geen kerkmacht leidde den kunstenaar nu meer, geen geldmacht uit het paleis bond hem. Het was de kunstenaar als mensch, die vrij onder menschen omwandelend, heel iets anders en veel rijkers in en achter dat menschelijk leven ontdekte dan de diepste zieners op het gebied der kunst eertijds ook maar van verre gegist hadden. Voor Rembrandt school, gelijk Taine zoo zinrijk opmerkt, dat leven achter zijn sombere tinten, maar juist in dat chiaroscuro greep hij dat leven zoo zeldzaam werkelijk en innig waar. En zoo werd dan, dank zij de mondigverklaring der volkeren, dank zij den vrijheidszin dien het Calvinisme in het hart der volkeren deed ontwaken, in dat gewone, maar zoo rijke menschelijke leven voor de kunst een geheel nieuwe wereld ontsloten, en het is uit den rijken inhoud dier nieuw ontdekte wereld, dat de Nederlandsche schilderschool, door een oog voor het kleine en onbeduidende, door een hart voor het lijden van de menschheid te hebben, dien wonderen kunstschat op het doek heeft gebracht, die nu nog haar roem vereeuwigt, en den weg tot nieuwe kunstverovering voor alle volken ontsloten heeft.

It has frequently been remarked, moreover, that the idea of election by free giace has contributed not a little toward interesting art in the hidden importance of what was seemingly small and insignificant. If a common man, to whom the world pays no special attention, is valued and even chosen by God as one of His elect, this must lead the artist also to find a motive for his artistic studies in what is common and of every- 31 day occurrence, to pay attention to the emotions and the issues of the human heart in it. to grasp, with his artistic instinct, their ideal impulse, and. lastly, by his pencil to interpret for the world at large the precious discovery he has made. Even foolish and drastic extravagances became the motive for art-productions, merely as revelations of the human heart and as manifestations of human life. Man was also to be shown the image of his folly, that he might depart from evil. Thus far the artist had only traced upon his canvass the idealized figures of prophets and apostles, of saints and priests, now however, when he saw how God had chosen the porter and the wage-earner for Himself, he found interest not only in the head, the figure and the entire personality of the man of the people, but began to reproduce the human expression of every rank and station. And if thus far the eyes of all had been fixed constantly and solely upon the sufferings of the ''Man of sorrows**, some now began to understand, that there was a mystical suffering also in the general woe of man, revealing hitherto unmeasured depths of the human heart, and thereby enabling us to fathom much better the still deeper depths of the mysterious agonies of Golgotha. Ecclesiastical power no longer restrained the artist, and no princely gold chained him in its fetters. If artist, he also was man, mingling freely among the people, and discovering in and behind their human life, something quite different from what palace and castle had hitherto afforded him, and which proved to be much more valuable than the keenest eye had ever surmised. As Taine so significantly says: to Rembrandt, human life hid its face behind many sombre hues, but even in that chiaroscuro his grasp upon that life was profoundly real and significant. As the result therefore of the declaration of the people's maturity and of the love of liberty which Calvinism awakened in the heart of the nations, the common but rich human life disclosed to art an entirely new world, and, by opening the eye for the small and the 32 insignificant, and by opening the heart for the sorrows of mankind, from the rich content of this newly discovered world, the Dutch school of art has produced upon the canvass those wondrous art-productions which still immortalize its fame, and which have shown the way to all the nations for new conquests in its wake.

It has frequently been remarked, moreover, that the idea of election by free grace has contributed not a little toward interesting art in the hidden importance of what was seemingly small and insignificant. If a common man, to whom the world pays no special attention, is valued and even chosen by God as one of His elect, this must lead the artist also to find a motive for his artistic studies in what is common and of every-day occurrence, to pay attention to the emotions and the issues of the human heart in it, to grasp with his artistic instinct their ideal impulse, and, lastly, by his pencil to interpret for the world at large the precious discovery he has made. Even foolish and drastic extravagances became the motive for art-productions, merely as revolutions, of the human heart and as manifestations of human life. Man was also to be shown the image of his folly, that he might depart from evil. Thus far the artist had only traced upon his canvas the idealized figures of prophets and apostles, of saints and priests; now, however, when he saw how God had chosen the porter and the wage-earner for Himself, he found interest not only in the head, the figure and the entire personality of the man of the people, but began to reproduce the human expression of every rank and station. And if thus far the eyes of all had been fixed constantly and solely upon the sufferings of the “Man of Sorrows”, some now began 226 to understand that there was a mystical suffering also in the general woe of man, revealing hitherto unmeasured depths of the human heart, and thereby enabling us to fathom much better the still deeper depths of the mysterious agonies of Golgotha. Ecclesiastical power no longer restrained the artist, and princely gold no longer chained him in its fetters. If artist, he also was man, mingling freely among the people, and discovering in and behind their human life, something quite different from what palace and castle had hitherto afforded him, something, too, which proved to be much more valuable than the keenest eye had ever surmised. As Taine so significantly says: To Rembrandt, human life hid its face behind many sombre hues, but even in that chiaroscuro his grasp upon that life was profoundly real and significant. As the result therefore of the declaration of the people’s maturity and of the love of liberty which Calvinism awakened in the hearts of the nations, the common but rich human life disclosed to art an entirely new world, and, by opening the eye for the small and the insignificant, and by opening the heart for the sorrows of mankind, from the rich content of this newly discovered world, the Dutch school of art has produced upon the canvas those wondrous art-productions which still immortalize its fame, and which have shown the way to all the nations for new conquests.

Além disso, freqüentemente tem sido observado que o conceito da eleição pela livre graça tem contribuído muito para o interesse da arte na importância oculta do que aparentemente era pequeno e insignificante. Se um homem comum, a quem o mundo não presta nenhuma atenção especial, é estimado e até mesmo escolhido por Deus como um de seus eleitos, isto deve levar o artista a encontrar também um motivo para seus estudos artísticos no que é comum e de ocorrência diária, a prestar atenção às emoções e questões do coração humano nisto, a compreender com seu instinto artístico seus impulsos ideais, e finalmente, através de seu pincel interpretar para o mundo em geral a preciosa descoberta que fez.

Até mesmo extravagâncias loucas e drásticas tornaram-se o motivo para produções artísticas, simplesmente como revoluções do coração humano e como manifestações da vida humana. Deveria ser mostrado também ao homem a imagem de sua loucura, para que ele possa afastar-se do mal. Até aqui o artista traçava sobre suas telas as figuras idealizadas de profetas e apóstolos, de santos e sacerdotes; agora, contudo, quando ele viu como Deus escolheu para si mesmo o porteiro e o assalariado, interessou-se não somente na cabeça, na figura e na personalidade toda do homem do povo, mas começou a reproduzir a expressão humana de cada classe e condição social. E se até aqui os olhos de todos estavam fixados constante e somente sobre os sofrimentos do “Varão de Dores”, agora alguns começaram a entender que também havia um sofrimento místico na desgraça geral do homem, revelando profundezas até agora imensuráveis do coração humano, e com isso habilitando-nos a sondar muito melhor as dimensões ainda mais profundas das agonias misteriosas do Gólgota. O poder eclesiástico não restringiu mais o artista, e o ouro principesco não o acorrentou mais em seus grilhões. No caso do artista, ele também era homem, misturando-se livremente entre o povo, e descobrindo em e atrás de sua vida humana algo completamente diferente daquilo que o palácio e o castelo até agora lhe tinham fornecido, algo que também provou ser muito mais valioso do que o olho mais perspicaz jamais tinha suposto. Como Taine tão significativamente disse: Para Rembrandt, a vida humana esconde sua face atrás de muitas nuanças sombrias, mas mesmo neste chiaroscuro95 sua compreensão sobre esta vida era profundamente real e significativa.

Portanto, como resultado da declaração de maturidade do povo e do amor pela liberdade, os quais o Calvinismo despertou no coração das nações, a comum mas rica vida humana revelou para a arte um mundo inteiramente novo, abrindo os olhos para o pequeno e para o insignificante, e abrindo o coração para os sofrimentos da humanidade. A partir do rico conteúdo deste mundo recentemente descoberto, a escola holandesa de arte produziu sobre telas aquelas maravilhosas produções artísticas que ainda imortalizam sua fama, e que tem mostrado o caminho para novas conquistas a todas as nações.

Мало того, часто отмечали, что идея избрания по свободной благодати внесла немалый вклад в то, чтобы заинтересовать искусство скрытой важностью малого и неприметного. Если обычного человека, которого мир и не замечает, ценит и даже избирает Бог, то это должно побудить художника заняться обычным и повседневным, обращая внимание на чувства и движения человеческого сердца, улавливая художественным дарованием его возвышенные порывы, и, наконец, с помощью кисти являя миру свои открытия. Даже глупости и злые причуды стали сюжетами искусства, просто как порывы человеческого сердца и проявления человеческой жизни. Человеку следует показать его собственное безумие, чтобы он отошел от зла. До того времени художник занимался только идеализированными фигурами пророков и апостолов, святых и священников; теперь же, когда он увидел, как Бог избирает грузчика и рабочего, он стал проявлять внимание не только к голове или фигуре обычного человека, но и воспроизводить то, что выражает жизнь человека любого социального положения и состояния. До той поры глаза были прикованы к страданиям «Мужа Скорбей», теперь некоторые начали понимать, что есть и скрытое страдание. Общее горе открывает доселе неисследованные глубины человеческого сердца и, тем самым, дает возможность гораздо лучше изобразить еще более глубокую бездну голгофских страданий. Церковная власть больше не сдерживала художника, золото королей не сковывало его цепями. Художник был человеком, свободно пребывающим среди людей и открывающим внутри и за пределами человеческой жизни совсем не то, что до сих пор показывали его взору дворец и замок. Открывшееся ему оказалось намного более ценным, чем то, что до сих пор видел самый острый взгляд. Как выразительно сказал Тэн, для Рембрандта человеческая жизнь прятала свое лицо за многими мрачными тонами, но даже в этой светотени его взгляд на жизнь был глубоко реалистичным и значительным. Признав зрелость человека и любовь к свободе, которую кальвинизм пробудил в сердцах народов, повседневная, но одновременно и богатая человеческая жизнь открыла искусству совершенно новый мир. Открывая глазам малое и неприметное, открывая сердцу страдания человечества, голландская школа живописи создала из этого новооткрытого мира те удивительные произведения, которые сохраняют в бессмертии ее славу, показав всем народам путь к новым достижениям.

En nu dan ten slotte de beteekenis van het Calvinisme voor de muziek, een uitnemendheid die minder bekend, maar daarom 164 niet minder hoog van beduidenis is, gelijk Douen in zijn twee dikke octavo-deelen ¹⁷⁾ ons dit voor nu tien jaar verklaard heeft. Muziek en schilderkunst loopen hier evenwijdig. Gelijk in de kerkelijk-aristocratische periode alleen het hooge en heilige de meesters van het penseel boeide, zoo heerschte op muzikaal gebied de zeker diepe, maar eentonige cantus planus of plain chant van Gregorius, die den rythmus verzaakte, de harmonie niet kende, en door zijn aanvankelijk conservatief karakter, naar een kunstkenner getuigde, aan alle ontwikkeling van de toonkunst in den weg stond ¹⁸⁾. Laag beneden die plechtige toonkunst sloop in de volkskringen een vrijer zang rond, die vaak aan den Venusdienst zijn bezieling ontleende, en tot ergernis der betere kerkvorsten, met name op het dusgenaamde „ezelsfeest” tot binnen de kerkwanden doordrong, en aanleiding gaf tot die stuitende tooneelen, waaraan eerst het Concilie van Trente paal en perk heeft gesteld ¹⁹⁾. De kerk alleen mocht de golven der tonen doen ruischen, wat het volk musiceerde werd beneden de waardigheid der kunst gerekend, en zelfs in het bedehuis moest het volk de muziek wel aanhooren, maar zelf meêzingen mocht het niet. Zoo bleef de muziek als kunst een zelfstandige positie derven. Alleen voor zooverre ze de kerk dienen wilde, kon ze als kunst bloeien. Wat ze op eigen erf wagen dorst, verhief zich niet boven populair gebruik. En gelijk nu op elk terrein des levens het Protestantisme in het gemeen, maar consequent alleen het Calvinisme, aan de voogdij der kerk een einde maakte, zoo is ook de toekomst voor haar vrijmaking en voor de ontsluiting van den weg tot haar geheele moderne ontwikkeling aan het Calvinisme dank verschuldigd. Het zijn toch de toonzetters van het Calvinistisch Psalmgezang geweest, die het 165 eerst den moed grepen, om zich van den band van den Cantus firmus los te maken, hun melodieën uit de vrije tonenwereld zelve grepen, en hierbij wel op het volksgezang teruggingen, maar om het, gelijk Douen zegt, gezuiverd en gedoopt in den Christelijken ernst aan het volk terug te geven. Ook de muziek zou voortaan bloeien niet onder de knellende beperktheid van de particuliere genade, maar in den breeden en den vruchtbaren bodem van de gemeene gratie. Het koor zweeg, het volk zou in zijn bedehuis zelf zingen, en daarom moesten Bourgeois en de Calvinistische virtuosen, die hem ter zijde stonden, wel in de volksmelodie teruggrijpen, maar dan juist, opdat het volk, nu niet in kroeg en op straat, maar in het bedehuis zingen zou, om den ernst van het hart in hun melodieën over den gloed van den hartstocht te doen triomfeeren.

Finally, as to the significance Calvinism had for Music, we face one of its excellencies which, though less widely known, is, notwithstanding, highly important ; as Mr. Douen taught us, ten years ago, in his two big volumes on Marot, Music and painting here run parallel. Even as in the ecclesiasticalaristocratic period it was only the high and the holy that interested the masters of the pencil, so in music the plain chant of Gregory was dominant, which abandoned rhythm, despised harmony, and which according to a professional critic, by its provisionally conservative character barred the way to the further artistic development of music. Far below the level of this stately chant flowed the freer song of the people, too often, alas, inspired by the worship of Venus, and which at the times of the so called "donkey-festivals", much to the chagrin of ecclesiastical officials, penetrated even the walls of the churches, and there occasioned those repulsive scenes which the Council of Trent first succeeded in putting under the ban. The church alone was privileged to make music, while that which the people produced was scorned, as being beneath the dignity of the art. Even in the oratory itself, while the people were allowed to listen to the holy music, they were forbidden to join in the song. Thus, as an art, music was almost entirely deprived of its independent standing. Only in so far as it could serve the church was it permitted to flourish artistically. Whatever it undertook on its own responsibility, had no higher call than the popular use. And as in every department of life, Protestantism in general, but Calvinism more consistently, bridled the tutelage of the church, so also was 33 music emancipated by it, and the way opened to its so splendid modern development. The men who first arranged the music of the Psalms for the Calvinistic singing were the brave heroes who cut the strands that bound us to the Cantus firmus, and selected their melodies from the free world of music. To be sure, by doing this, they adopted the people's melodies, but as Douen rightly remarks, only in order that they might return these melodies to the people purified and baptized in Christian seriousness. Music also would flourish, henceforth, not within the narrow limitations of particular grace, but in the wide and fertile fields of common grace. The choir was abandoned ; in the sanctuary the people themselves would sing, and therefore Bourgeois aud the Calvinistic virtuosi who followed him, were bound to make their selections from the popular melodies, but with this end in view, viz., that now the people would no longer sing in the saloon or in the street, but in the sanctuary, and thus, in their melodies, cause the seriousness of the heart to triumph over the heat of the lower passions.

Finally, as to the significance Calvinism had for Music, we face one of its excellencies which, though less widely known, is notwithstanding highly important — as Mr. Douen taught us ten years ago, in his two big volumes on Marot. Music and painting here run parallel. 227 Even as in the ecclesiastical-aristocratic period it was only the high and the holy that interested the masters of the pencil, so in music the plain chant of Gregory was dominant, which abandoned rhythm, despised harmony, and which according to a professional critic, by its provisionally conservative character barred the way to the further artistic development of music. Far below the level of this stately chant flowed the freer song of the people, too often, alas, inspired by the worship of Venus, which at the times of the so-called “donkey-festivals”, much to the chagrin of ecclesiastical officials, penetrated even the walls of the churches, and there occasioned those repulsive scenes which the Council of Trent first succeeded in putting under the ban. The Church alone was privileged to make music, while that which the people produced was scorned, as being beneath the dignity of the art. Even in the oratory itself, while the people were allowed to listen to the holy music, they were forbidden to join in the song. Thus, as an art, music was almost entirely deprived of its independent standing Only in so far as it could serve the church was it permitted to flourish artistically. Whatever it undertook on its own responsibility had no higher call than the popular use. And as in every department of life, Protestantism in general, but Calvinism more consistently, bridled the tutelage of the church, so also was music emancipated by it, and the way opened to its so splendid modern development. The men who first arranged the music of the Psalm for the Calvinistic singing were the brave heroes who cut the strands that bound us to the Cantus firmus, and selected their 228 melodies from the free world of music. To be sure, by doing this, they adopted the people’s melodies, but as Douen rightly remarks, only in order that they might return these melodies to the people purified and baptized in Christian seriousness. Music also would flourish, henceforth, not within the narrow limitations of particular grace, but in the wide and fertile fields of common grace. The choir was abandoned; in the sanctuary the people themselves would sing, and therefore Bourgeois and the Calvinistic virtuosi who followed him were bound to make their selections from the popular melodies, but with this end in view, viz., that now the people would no longer sing in the saloon or in the street, but in the sanctuary, and thus, in their melodies, cause the seriousness of the heart to triumph over the heat of the lower passions.

Finalmente, quanto a importância que o Calvinismo teve para a Música, nos defrontamos com uma de suas excelências que, embora muito menos conhecida, é entretanto grandemente importante – como o Sr. Douen nos ensinou há dez anos, em seus dois grandes volumes sobre Marot. A música e a pintura correm paralelas aqui. Do mesmo modo como no período eclesiástico-aristocrático era apenas o alto e o santo que interessavam aos mestres do pincel, assim também na música o cantochão de Gregório era dominante, o qual abandonou o ritmo, desprezou a harmonia, e que, segundo um crítico profissional, por seu caráter provisoriamente conservador obstruiu o caminho para o maior desenvolvimento artístico da música.

Abaixo do nível deste grandioso cantochão fluía o canto mais livre do povo, muitas vezes, por incrível que pareça, inspirado pela adoração a Vênus, que no tempo das assim chamadas “Festas dos Burros”, para grande vergonha dos oficiais eclesiásticos, penetrava até mesmo as paredes das igrejas e ali provocava aquelas cenas repulsivas que o Concílio de Trento conseguiu pela primeira vez banir. Somente a Igreja era privilegiada para fazer música, enquanto que aquela que o povo produzia era desprezada como sendo inferior à dignidade da arte. Até mesmo na oratória em si, enquanto era permitido ao povo ouvir a música santa, lhe era proibido juntar-se em cantos. Assim, como arte, a música estava quase completamente privada de sua posição independente. Somente à medida que pudesse servir a igreja lhe era permitido prosperar artisticamente.

Tudo quanto ela empreendia por sua própria responsabilidade não tinha apelo maior do que o uso popular. Assim como em cada departamento da vida, o Protestantismo em geral, mas o Calvinismo mais consistentemente refreou a tutela da igreja, assim também a música foi emancipada por ele, e o caminho aberto para este tão esplêndido desenvolvimento moderno. Os homens que primeiro arranjaram a música do Salmo para o canto calvinista foram os bravos heróis que cortaram as amarras que nos prendiam ao Cantus firmus, e selecionaram suas melodias do mundo livre da música. Sem dúvida, ao fazerem isto adotaram as melodias do povo, mas como Douen corretamente observa, somente a fim de que pudessem devolver estas melodias ao povo purificadas e batizadas na seriedade cristã. A música também prosperaria daqui por diante, não dentro das restritas limitações da graça particular, mas nos campos amplos e férteis da graça comum. O coro foi abandonado; o próprio povo cantaria no santuário, e por isso Bourgeois96 e a virtuosi calvinista que o seguiu foram obrigados a fazer sua seleção das melodias populares, mas com este fim em vista, a saber, que agora o povo não cantaria mais no bar ou na rua, mas no santuário, e assim, em suas melodias levaram a seriedade do coração a triunfar sobre o calor das paixões inferiores.

Что касается значения кальвинизма для музыки, мы сталкиваемся с одной из тех его превосходных сторон, которая менее известна, но чрезвычайно важна, как показал нам Дуэн десять лет назад в двух объемных томах, посвященных Маро. Музыка и живопись идут рука об руку. Подобно тому, как в церковно-аристократический период мастеров кисти интересовало лишь высокое и святое, так и в музыке доминировало однообразное григорианское пение, которое упразднило ритм, презрело гармонию, и, по мнению профессиональных критиков, своим намеренным консерватизмом преграждало музыке путь к дальнейшему развитию. Много ниже этого величественного уровня звучала, увы, весьма фривольная песня простого народа, которая во время так называемых «ослиных фестивалей», к большому огорчению Церкви, проникала даже в храмы, где происходили те отталкивающие сцены, которые удалось запретить только Тридентскому Собору. Привилегией сочинять музыку обладала Церковь, а то, что сочинял народ, презирали как нечто, недостойное искусства. Слушать священную музыку не возбранялось, но народ не имел права присоединяться к пению. Таким образом, как отдельный вид искусства музыка была почти полностью лишена независимости. Ей разрешалось процветать только в той мере, в какой она могла служить Церкви. То, что она делала на свой страх и риск, оставалось лишь в народном употреблении. Подобно тому, как в каждой сфере жизни протестантизм вообще, а кальвинизм — более последовательно, обуздал попечительство Церкви, так освободил он и музыку, открыв путь ее блистательному развитию. Те, кто первыми писал музыку для кальвинистских псалмов, были отважными героями. Обрезая канаты, привязывающие нас к григорианскому пению, они выбирали свои мелодии из свободного мира музыки. Конечно, они адаптировали народные напевы, но, как справедливо замечает Дуэн, только для того, чтобы вернуть их народу очищенными и крещеными христианской серьезностью. Музыка стала процветать не в узких границах особой благодати, а на широких и плодоносных полях благодати общей. Хор был упразднен, народ пел сам, и потому Буржуа⁴ и тем кальвинистским мастерам, которые последовали за ним, пришлось выбирать из народных мелодий; но ставя перед собой определенную цель — чтобы народ пел не в кабаке и не на улице, а в церкви, и, таким образом, сердечная серьезность торжествовала над низкими страстями.

Is dit de algemeene verdienste van het Calvinisme of wel de ommekeer, dien het door het leekendenkbeeld voor het algemeene priesterschap der geloovigen te doen wijken, op muzikaal gebied tot stand bracht, toch eischt historische trouw dat we hierop nog concreter ingaan. Is Bourgeois de groote meester geweest, wiens werken hem nu nog stempelen tot den meest genialen componist van het Protestantsch Europa dier dagen, merk dan tevens op hoe Bourgeois te Genève zelf en als onder de oogen van Calvijn, deels zelfs onder zijn leiding, gewerkt heeft. Deze Bourgeois nu is de man, die het eerst den moed greep om den rythmus, en de vervanging van de acht Gregoriaansche wijzen door de twee van majeur en mineur, uit de volksmuziek op te nemen, haar kunstschoon in het gewijde lied te heiligen, en daardoor het stempel der eere te drukken op die muzikale toonzetting, waaruit heel de moderne muziek is opgekomen. Evenzoo deed Bourgeois met de opneming van de harmonie of het veelstemmig gezang ²⁰⁾. Hij was het die melodie en lied huwde, door de expressie. De solfége, de vermindering van het aantal toonschakeeringen, de klaarder 166 onderscheidingen der verschillende gamma’s, en zooveel meer waardoor de kennis der muziek vergemakkelijkt en uitgebreid werd, het dankt alles aan Bourgeois zijn doorzetting. En toen Goudimel, zijn Calvinistische kunstgenoot en Palestrina’s leermeester ²¹⁾, het kerkgezang van het volk beluisterde, ontdekte hoe de hooge kinderstem den tenor, die dusver de leiding had, overstemde, was hij het, die het eerst de sopraan de leiding van den tenor liet overnemen, een verandering van verreikenden invloed, die sinds stand hield.

If this is the general merit of Calvinism, or rather the change which it effected in the domain of music, by forcing the idea of the laity to give room to that of the general priesthood of believers, historic accuracy requires a still more concrete elucidation. If Bourgeois was the great master whose works still assure him a front rank among the most notable composers of Protestant Europe, it is also worthy of note that this Bourgeois lived and labored in Geneva, under the very eyes of Calvin and even partly under his direction. It was this same Bourgeois who had the courage to adopt rhythm and to exchange the eight Gregorian modes for the two of major and minor from the popular music; to sanctify its art in consecrated hymn, and so to put the impress of honor upon that musical arrangement of tunes, from which all modern music had its rise. In the same way Bourgeois adopted the harmony or the song of several parts. He was the man 34 who wedded melody to verse by expression. The solfeggio, i.e. the singing by note, the reduction of the number of chords, the clearer distinction of the several gamuts, etc., by which the knowledge of music was so much simplified, is all owing to the perseverance of this Calvinistic Composer. And when Goudimel, his Calvinistic colleague, the teacher of the great Palestrine, once at Rome listening to the singing of the people in the church, discovered that the higher voices of the children outstripped the tenor, which had thus far held the lead, he for the first time gave the leading part to the soprano; a change of far-reaching influence which has ever since been maintained.

If this is the general merit of Calvinism, or rather the change which it effected in the domain of music, by forcing the idea of the laity to give room to that of the general priesthood of believers, historic accuracy requires a still more concrete elucidation. If Bourgeois was the great master whose works still assure him a front rank among the most notable composers of Protestant Europe, it is also worthy of note that this Bourgeois lived and labored in Geneva, under the very eyes of Calvin and even partly under his direction. It was this same Bourgeois who had the courage to adopt rhythm and to exchange the eight Gregorian modes for the two of major and minor from the popular music; to sanctify its art in consecrated hymn, and so to put the impress of honor upon that musical arrangement 229 of tunes, from which all modern music had its rise. In the same way Bourgeois adopted the harmony or the song of several parts. He was the man who wedded melody to verse by what is called expression. The solfeggio, i.e., the singing by note, the reduction of the number of chords, the clearer distinction of the several gamuts, etc., by which the knowledge of music was so much simplified, is all owing to the perseverance of this Calvinistic Composer. And when Goudimel, his Calvinistic colleague, once at Rome the teacher of the great Palestrina, listening to the singing of the people in the church, discovered that the higher voices of the children outstripped the tenor, which had thus far held the lead, he for the first time gave the leading part to the soprano; a change of far reaching influence which has ever since been maintained.

Se este é o mérito geral do Calvinismo, ou antes a mudança que ele realizou no campo da música, obrigando a idéia do laicato a dar lugar àquela do sacerdócio universal dos crentes, a exatidão histórica requer uma elucidação ainda mais concreta. Se Bourgeois foi o grande mestre cujas obras ainda lhe asseguram a primeira posição entre os mais notáveis compositores protestantes da Europa, é também digno de nota que Bourgeois viveu e trabalhou em Genebra, debaixo dos próprios olhos de Calvino e em parte até mesmo sob sua direção. Foi este mesmo Bourgeois que teve a coragem de adotar o ritmo e de trocar os oitos modos97 Gregorianos pelos dois de clave maior e menor da música popular; de santificar esta arte em hinos consagrados, e assim colocar a marca de honra sobre este arranjo musical de tons, no qual toda música moderna tem sua origem. Do mesmo modo Bourgeois adotou a harmonia ou o canto das várias partes. Foi ele quem uniu a melodia ao verso, o que é chamado de expressão. O solfejo, isto é, o canto por notas, a redução do número de cordas, a distinção mais clara de várias escalas, etc., através dos quais o conhecimento da música foi muito simplificado, tudo é devido à perseverança deste compositor calvinista.

Quando Goudimel98, seu colega calvinista, antigo professor do grande Palestrina em Roma, prestando atenção ao canto do povo na igreja, descobriu que a voz mais alta das crianças sobrepujava o tenor, a qual até agora mantinha a liderança, ele, pela primeira vez, deu a voz de liderança ao soprano; uma mudança de grande influência que, desde então, sempre tem sido mantida.

Если в этом и состоит общая заслуга кальвинизма или, скорее, то изменение, которое он осуществил в сфере музыки, сделав так, что деление на мирян и клир уступило место всеобщему священству верующих, то историческая точность требует рассмотреть все более подробно. Буржуа был великим мастером, чьи работы все еще обеспечивают ему место в первом ряду самых знаменитых композиторов протестантской Европы. При этом следует указать на то, что он жил и работал в Женеве, рядом с Кальвином и даже отчасти под его руководством. Этот был тот Буржуа, который посмел ввести ритм и заменить восемь ладов григорианского пения на два — мажор и минор, — взятые из народной музыки; а кроме того, имел мужество возвысить народное искусство до священных гимнов, придав достоинство той музыкальной гармонии, из которой возникла вся современная музыка. Точно так же Буржуа ввел созвучие и песню, состоящую из нескольких частей. Он обручил мелодию со стихом посредством того, что зовется выразительностью. Сольфеджио, т. е. пение по нотам, уменьшение количества аккордов, более ясное разделение нескольких диапазонов и многое другое, посредством чего изучение музыки значительно упростилось, обязано стойкости и настойчивости этого композитора-кальвиниста. Когда Гудимель⁵, его кальвинистский коллега, учивший некогда в Риме великого Палестрину, слушал, как поет народ в церкви, и обнаружил, что детские голоса перекрывают тенор, который до той поры играл главную роль, он первым передал эту ведущую роль сопрано. Данное далеко идущее изменение с тех пор прочно сохраняется.

Vergeeft het mij, dat ik een oogenblik tot in deze bijzonderheden moest afdalen, maar de verdiensten van het Protestantisme en van het Calvinisme in het bijzonder staan op muzikaal gebied te hoog, om hier nog langer zonder protest miskenning te dulden. Al is het toch, dat het Calvinisme op velerlei ander kunstterrein slechts zijdelings den bloei der kunst bevorderde, door ze mondig te verklaren en in haar zelfstandig karakter vrij te laten opbloeien, op muzikaal gebied was de invloed van het Calvinisme een zeer positieve, juist, wijl het in zijn geestelijke Godsvereering, waarin voor de andere meer zinlijke kunsten geen plaats was, een geheel nieuwe rol aan zang en toonkunst toewees door het in het leven roepen van het volksgezang. Wat ook de oude school deed om zich aan de nieuwere ontwikkeling aan te sluiten, de moderne ontwikkeling bleef voor den cantus firmus onnatuurlijk, wijl ze sproot uit geheel anderen wortel. Het Calvinisme daarentegen sloot zich niet slechts bij haar aan, maar gaf veeleer onder leiding van Bourgeois en Goudimel op kunstgebied aan die moderne ontwikkeling den eersten stoot, zoodat zelfs Roomsch Katholieke schrijvers huns ondanks moeten erkennen dat de wegsleepend schoone rijkdom, waartoe én de vorige én deze onze eeuw op muzikaal gebied is opgeklommen, goeddeels aan het kettersch kerklied zijn opkomst dankt.

Pardon me if for a moment I detained you with these particulars, but the merits of Protestantism, and more particularly of Calvinism, in music are of too high an order to suffer longer depreciation without protest. I fully acknowledge that Calvinism exercised over some arts only an indirect influence, by the declaration of their maturity, and by affording them liberty to flourish in their own independence of character, but on music, the influence of Calvinism was a very positive one, due to its spiritual worship of God, which provided no room lor the more material arts. but assigned a new role to song and to music by the creation of melodies and songs for the people. Whatever the old school did to join itself to the newer development of music, the modern music remained unnatural to the cantus firmus, because it sprang from a quite different root. Calvinism on the other hand not only joined itself to it, but under the leadership of Bourgeois and Goudimel gave it its first impulse, so that even Roman Catholic writers are constrained to acknowledge, that this beautiful development of music in the last and present centuries for the most part owed its rise to the heretical church-hymns.

Pardon me if for a moment I detained you with these particulars, hut the merits of Protestantism, and more particularly of Calvinism, in music are of too high an order to suffer longer depreciation without protest. I fully acknowledge that Calvinism exercised over some arts only an indirect influence, by the declaration of their maturity, and by affording them liberty to flourish in their own independence, but on music, the influence of Calvinism was a very positive one, due to its spiritual worship of God, which provided no room for the more material arts, but assigned a new role to song and to music by the creation of melodies and songs for the people. Whatever the old school did to join itself to the newer development of music, the modern music remained unnatural to the cantus firmus, 230because it sprang from a quite different root. Calvinism on the other hand not only joined itself to it, but under the leadership of Bourgeois and Goudimel gave it its first impulse, so that even Roman Catholic writers are constrained to acknowledge that our beautiful development of music in the last and present centuries for the most part owed its rise to the heretical church-hymns.

Perdoem-me se por um momento detive vocês com estes particulares, mas os méritos do Protestantismo, e mais particularmente do Calvinismo, na música são de uma ordem muito alta para sofrer depreciação sem protesto. Reconheço plenamente que o Calvinismo exerceu sobre algumas artes uma influência indireta, declarando sua maturidade, e permitindo sua liberdade prosperar em sua própria independência, mas na música a influência do Calvinismo foi muito positiva devido a sua adoração espiritual de Deus, a qual não proveu um lugar para as artes mais materiais, mas deu uma nova função para o canto e para a música pela criação de melodias e cânticos para o povo. O que quer que a velha escola tenha feito para unir-se ao desenvolvimento mais recente da música, a música moderna continuou algo alheio para o cantus firmus, porque nasceu de uma raiz completamente diferente. O Calvinismo, por outro lado, não somente uniu-se a ela, mas sob a liderança de Bourgeois e Goudimel deu-lhe seu primeiro impulso, de modo que até mesmo os escritores Católicos romanos são obrigados a reconhecer que nosso belo desenvolvimento da música no último e no presente século, em sua maior parte, teve sua origem nos hinos da igreja herética.

Простите, если я утомил вас этими подробностями, но музыкальные заслуги протестантизма, и в частности кальвинизма, слишком значительны, чтобы и дальше мириться с их недооценкой. Я полностью признаю, что кальвинизм оказывал на отдельные искусства лишь косвенное влияние, просто признавая их зрелость и предоставляя им свободу процветать в своей собственной сфере. На музыку же кальвинизм повлиял основательно, благодаря духовному поклонению Богу, которое дало новую роль пению и музыке, создавая мелодии и песнопения для народа. Что бы старая школа ни делала для того, чтобы присоединиться к развитию музыки в новые времена, современная музыка плохо сочеталась с cantus firmus, потому что происходила из совершенно другого корня. Кальвинизм же не только присоединился к этому развитию, но и под руководством Буржуа и Гудимеля дал ему первый импульс, так что даже католическим авторам пришлось признать, что превосходное развитие нашей музыки в прошлом и нынешнем столетиях в очень большой мере обязано еретическим церковным гимнам.

Dat in de latere periode het Protestantisme dezen schoonen aanloop afbrak, moet toegegeven. Een ongezond spiritualisme 167 is uit de anabaptistische kringen ten leste ook onder ons ingeslopen, waartegen thans eerst weer de ban zich richt. Maar als van Roomsche zijde, met algeheele miskenning van dit ons schoon verleden ook op muzikaal gebied, het Calvinisme van aesthetische botheid wordt beschuldigd, dient toch herinnerd, hoe de geniale Goudimel, in den Bartholomeus-nacht, juist door Roomsch fanatisme is vermoord geworden; iets wat vanzelf tot de vraag leidt, of niet het recht verbeurde om over de stilheid in het woud te klagen, wie met eigen hand den nachtegaal ving en vermoord had.

1) G.W.F. Hegel, Encycl. der Phil. Wissenschaft in Grundrissen, Berlin 1845 Th. III, p. 445.

2) Von Hartmann, Aesthetik. Leipzig II. p. 458, 459.

3) Ed. Brunsvig, à 1882. T. XXIII. p. 99.

4) Tom. XXV. p. 58.

5) Ed. Amst. Tom. I. p. 570b.

6) Tom. III, p. 175b.

7) Inst. Relig. Christ. I. IV. § 34.

8) Ed. Brunsv. T. XXII. p. 356.

9) Tom. XXIV. p. 377.

10) Tom. VI. p. 169.

11) Tom. XII. p. 348.

12) Aesthetik II. p. 459.

13) Inst. Rel. Christ. I. IV § 34.

14) Calvini Opera ed. Brunsv. Tom. XX III, p. 99.

15) Taine, Philosophie de l’art dans les Pays Bas. p. 148 II.

16) Carrière, Die Kunst in Zusammenhang mit der Culturentwicklung. IV p. 308.

17) O. Douen, Clément Marot et le Psautier Huguenot. Deux volumes en grand Octavo de 738 et de 713 pages. Paris à l’imprimerie nationale. 1888/9.

18) Le résultat de la conservation perpétuelle d’un système de tonalité, ou de la forme de la gamme, est l’impossibilité du progrès dans l’art. Biographies des musiciens. Introduction p. LV.

19) Conc. v. Trente 22e Sessio, Sept. 1562. Ab ecclesiis vero musicas eas ubi, sive organo, sive canta lascivum, aut impurum quid miscetur, item seculares omnes actiones, vana atque adeo profana, colloquia deambulationes, strepitus, clamores, arceant, ut domus Dei vere domus orationis esse videatur et dici possit.

20) Dat de contrapunctoire toonzetting reeds in de 15de eeuw in de compositiën der kerkelijke school uitblonk, is hiermede natuurlijk in het minst niet ontkend, noch er meê in strijd.

21) Goudimel was een Vlaming, die het eerst te Rome zelf, en onder de oogen van Paus Paulus III, een vrije kunstschool voor leeken opende, en de beste leerling die uit deze school voortkwam was Palestrina.

That in the later period Calvinism lost almost all influence in this domain, cannot be denied. For a long time Anabaptism overwhelmed us with its dualistic prejudices, and an unhealthy 35 spiritualism prevailed. But when on that account, with entire disregard of our great musical past, Calvinism is accused by Rome of aesthetic dullness, it is well to call to mind that the great Goudimel was murdered by Romish fanaticism in the massacre of S. Bartholomew. A fact which not unnaturally suggests the question, whether he has not forfeited all right of complaint about the stillness of the forest, who with his own hand has caught and killed the nightingale.

That in a later period Calvinism lost almost all influence in this domain, cannot be denied. For a long time Anabaptism overwhelmed us with its dualistic prejudices, and an unhealthy spiritualism prevailed. But when on that account, with entire disregard of our great musical past, Calvinism is accused by Rome of aesthetic dullness, it is well to call to mind that the great Goudimel was murdered by Romish fanaticism in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. This fact is suggestive; for we naturally ask with Douen: Has that man any right to complain about the stillness of the forest, who with his own hand has caught and killed the nightingale?

Não pode ser negado que num período posterior o Calvinismo perdeu quase toda influência neste campo. Por um longo tempo o Anabatismo nos oprimiu com seus preconceitos dualistas, e prevaleceu um espiritualismo doentio. Mas quando por causa disto, com completo desprezo de nosso grande passado musical, o Calvinismo é acusado por Roma de estupidez estética, é bom recordar que o grande Goudimel foi assassinado pelo fanatismo romanista no massacre de São Bartolomeu. Este fato é sugestivo; pois como Douen perguntamos: Aquele homem que com sua própria mão capturou e matou o rouxinol, tem qualquer direito de criticar o silêncio da floresta?

Нельзя отрицать, что позже кальвинизм почти полностью утратил влияние на эту сферу. У нас долго преобладал нездоровый спиритуализм, и анабаптизм заражал многих своими дуалистическими предубеждениями. Но когда по этой причине, с полным невниманием к нашему великому музыкальному прошлому, Рим обвиняет кальвинистов в эстетической тупости, полезно вспомнить, что великий Гудимель был убит римскими фанатиками в Варфоломеевскую ночь. Этот факт значим, и мы можем спросить вместе с Дуэном: «Вправе ли жаловаться на безмолвие леса тот, кто своею рукой поймал и убил соловья?»

1 Искусство определяли как воплощение прекрасной мысли в чувственной форме, например, в мраморе или речи. В Calvinisme en Kunst д-р Кайпер утверждает: «Как носитель образа Божиего человек обладает способностью создавать прекрасное и наслаждаться им. Это „kunstvermogen“ („способность к искусству“) — не отдельная способность души, но непрерывное выражение образа Божиего».

2 Эстетику можно определить как науку о прекрасном и о вкусе; отраслью знания, которая относится к прекрасным искусствам и искусству критики. Общепринятой эстетики нет. Есть три школы: сенсуалистская (Хогарт), эмпирическая (Гельмгольц) и идеалистическая, обязанная своим происхождением Канту.

3 Гарибальди, итальянский патриот и освободитель (1807—1882).

4 Луи Буржуа родился около 1510 г. в Париже, в 1541 г. последовал за Кальвином в Женеву, где и стал церковным «chartre». Он одним из первых стал сочинять мелодии к псалмам. Но поскольку он желал ввести еще более «meerstemmige» псалмы, он вошел в конфликт с Кальвином и его консисторией и в 1557 г. возвратился в Париж. Он опубликовал свой «vierstemmige» Псалтырь в Лионе (1547) и Париже (1554). Написал он и «Le droict chemin de musique» (1550).

5 Клод Гудимель родился в Безансоне, Франция, в 1505 или 1510 г. Около 1540 г. он открыл Школу музыки. Обычно отрицают, что Палестрина одно время был его учеником. Он принял реформатскую веру и поселился в Лионе, где был убит во время Варфоломеевской ночи (1572). Он писал музыку к псалмам (1562) и опубликовал мелодии, которые все еще используются.